Genetics of Skin Cancer (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version

Basal cell carcinomas

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Squamous cell carcinomas

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Melanomas

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Sun exposure

Sun exposure is the major known environmental factor associated with the development of skin cancer of all types. There are different patterns of sun exposure associated with each major type of skin cancer (BCC, squamous cell carcinoma [SCC], and melanoma). For more information, see Skin Cancer Prevention.

Pigmentary characteristics

The high-risk phenotype consists of individuals with the following physical characteristics:

Specifically, people with more highly pigmented skin demonstrate lower incidence of BCC than do people with lighter pigmented skin. Individuals with Fitzpatrick type I or II skin (lighter skin) were shown to have a twofold increased risk of BCC in a small case-control study.[2] Blond or red hair color was associated with increased risk of BCC in two large cohorts: the Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals’ Follow-Up Study.[3] In women from the Nurses’ Health Study, there was an increased risk of BCC in women with red hair relative to those with light brown hair (adjusted relative risk [RR], 1.30; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.20–1.40). In men from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study, the risk of BCC associated with red hair was not as large (RR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.02–1.34) and was not significant after adjustment for melanoma family history and sunburn history.[3] Risk associated with blond hair was also increased for both men and women (RR, pooled analysis, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.02–1.18), and dark brown hair was protective against BCC (RR, pooled analysis, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.87–0.92). For more information, see the section on Pigmentary characteristics in the Melanoma section.

Family history

Individuals with BCCs and/or SCCs report a higher frequency of these cancers in their family members than do controls. The importance of this finding is unclear. Apart from defined genetic disorders with an increased risk of BCC, a positive family history of any skin cancer is a strong predictor of the development of BCC. Data from the Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study indicate that the family history of melanoma in a first-degree relative (FDR) is associated with an increased risk of BCC in both men and women (RR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.25–1.37; P < .0001).[3] A family history of melanoma in the same cohorts, plus the Nurses’ Health Study 2, showed a similar increased risk (hazard ratio [HR], 1.27; 95% CI, 1.12–1.44).[4] A study of 376 early-onset BCC cases and 383 controls found that a family history of any type of skin cancer increased the risk of early-onset BCC (odds ratio [OR], 2.49; 95% CI, 1.80–3.45). This risk increased when an FDR was diagnosed with skin cancer before age 50 years (OR, 4.79; 95% CI, 2.90–7.90). Individuals who had a family history of both melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) had the highest risk (OR, 3.65; 95% CI, 1.79–7.47).[5]

A study on the heritability of cancer among 80,309 monozygotic and 123,382 dizygotic twins showed that NMSCs have a heritability of 43% (95% CI, 26%–59%), suggesting that almost half of the risk of NMSC is caused by inherited factors.[6] Additionally, the cumulative risk of NMSC was 1.9-fold higher for monozygotic than for dizygotic twins (95% CI, 1.8–2.0).[6]

Previous personal history of BCC or SCC

A personal history of BCC or SCC is strongly associated with subsequent BCC or SCC. There is an approximate 20% increased risk of a subsequent lesion within the first year after a skin cancer has been diagnosed. The mean age of occurrence for these cancers is the mid-60s.[7-12] In addition, several studies have found that individuals with a history of BCC or SCC have an increased risk (range, 9%–61%) of a subsequent diagnosis of a noncutaneous cancer;[13-18] however, other studies have contradicted this finding.[19-22] In the absence of other risk factors or evidence of a defined cancer susceptibility syndrome, as discussed below, skin cancer patients are encouraged to follow screening recommendations for the general population for sites other than the skin.

PTCH1

Inherited pathogenic variants in the gene coding for the transmembrane receptor protein PTCH1, or PTCH, are associated with basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS), and somatic variants are associated with sporadic cutaneous BCCs. PTCH1, the human homolog of the Drosophila segment polarity gene patched (ptc), is an integral component of the hedgehog signaling pathway, which has many developmental (appendage development, embryonic segmentation, neural tube differentiation) and regulatory (maintenance of stem cells) roles. For more information, see the Basal cell nevus syndrome section.

In the resting state, the transmembrane receptor protein PTCH1 acts catalytically to suppress the seven-transmembrane protein Smoothened (Smo), preventing further downstream signal transduction.[23] Binding of the hedgehog ligand to PTCH1 releases inhibition of Smo, with resultant activation of transcription factors (GLI1, GLI2), cell proliferation genes (cyclin D, cyclin E, myc), and regulators of angiogenesis.[24,25] Thus, the balance of PTCH1 (inhibition) and Smo (activation) manages the essential regulatory downstream hedgehog signal transduction pathway. Loss-of-function pathogenic variants of PTCH1 or gain-of-function variants of Smo tip this balance toward activation, a key event in potential neoplastic transformation.

Demonstration of allelic loss on chromosome 9q22 in both sporadic and familial BCCs suggested the potential presence of an associated tumor suppressor gene.[26,27] Further investigation identified a pathogenic variant in PTCH1 that localized to the area of allelic loss.[28] Up to 30% of sporadic BCCs demonstrate PTCH1 pathogenic variants.[29] In addition to BCC, medulloblastoma and rhabdomyosarcoma, along with other tumors, have been associated with PTCH1 pathogenic variants. All three malignancies are associated with BCNS, and most people with clinical features of BCNS demonstrate germline PTCH1 pathogenic variants, predominantly truncation in type.[30]

PTCH2

Truncating pathogenic variants in PTCH2, a homolog of PTCH1 mapping to chromosome 1p32.1-32.3, have been seen in both BCC and medulloblastoma.[31,32] PTCH2 displays 57% homology to PTCH1.[33] While the exact role of PTCH2 remains unclear, there is evidence to support its involvement in the hedgehog signaling pathway.[31,34] However, the role of this gene in BCNS has been contested.[35]

BRCA1-associated protein 1 (BAP1)

Pathogenic variants in the BAP1 gene are associated with an increased risk of a variety of cancers, including cutaneous melanoma and uveal melanoma. Although the BCC penetrance in individuals with pathogenic variants in BAP1 is not known, there are several BAP1 families that report diagnoses of BCC.[36,37] In one study, pathogenic variant carriers from four families reported diagnoses of BCC. Tumor evaluation of BAP1 showed loss of BAP1 protein expression by immunohistochemistry in BCCs of two germline BAP1 pathogenic variant carriers but not in 53 sporadic BCCs.[36] A second report noted that four individuals from families with BAP1 germline pathogenic variants were diagnosed with a total of 19 BCCs. Complete loss of BAP1 nuclear expression was observed in 17 of 19 BCCs from these individuals but none of 22 control BCC specimens.[38] Loss of BAP1 nuclear expression was also reported in a series of 7 BCCs from individuals with loss of function BAP1 variants, but only in 1 of 31 sporadic BCCs.[39] For more information, see the section on BAP1 in the Melanoma section.

MC1R

A meta-analysis showed that the more MC1R pathogenic variants an individual carried, the higher his/her risk was to develop SCC and BCC. Individuals with two or more MC1R pathogenic variants had a summary OR of 2.48 (95% CI, 1.96–3.15) for BCC and a summary OR of 2.80 (95% CI, 1.71–4.57) for SCC; these risks increased when individuals had red hair.[40] A study of individuals diagnosed with BCC before age 40 years also found a stronger association between BCC and MC1R pathogenic variants in those with phenotypic characteristics that are not traditionally considered high risk. For more information, see the section on MC1R in the Melanoma section.[41]

Basal cell nevus syndrome

BCNS, also known as Gorlin Syndrome, Gorlin-Goltz syndrome, and nevoid BCC syndrome, is an autosomal dominant disorder with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 57,000 individuals.[42] The syndrome is notable for complete penetrance and high levels of variable expressivity, as evidenced by evaluation of individuals with identical genotypes but widely varying phenotypes.[30,43] The clinical features of BCNS differ more among families than within families.[44] BCNS is primarily associated with germline pathogenic variants in PTCH1, but families with this phenotype have also been associated with alterations in PTCH2 and SUFU.[45-47]

As detailed above, PTCH1 provides both developmental and regulatory guidance; spontaneous or inherited germline pathogenic variants of PTCH1 in BCNS may result in a wide spectrum of potentially diagnostic physical findings. The BCNS pathogenic variant has been localized to chromosome 9q22.3-q31, with a maximum logarithm of the odd (LOD) score of 3.597 and 6.457 at markers D9S12 and D9S53.[42] The resulting haploinsufficiency of PTCH1 in BCNS has been associated with structural anomalies such as odontogenic keratocysts, with evaluation of the cyst lining revealing loss of heterozygosity (LOH) for PTCH1.[48] The development of BCC and other BCNS-associated malignancies is thought to arise from the classic two-hit suppressor gene model: baseline heterozygosity secondary to germline PTCH1 pathogenic variant as the first hit, with the second hit due to mutagen exposure such as UV or ionizing radiation.[49-53] However, haploinsufficiency or dominant negative isoforms have also been implicated for the inactivation of PTCH1.[54]

The diagnosis of BCNS is typically based on characteristic clinical and radiological examination findings. Several sets of clinical diagnostic criteria for BCNS are in use (for more information, see Table 1).[55-58] Although each set of criteria has advantages and disadvantages, none of the sets have a clearly superior balance of sensitivity and specificity for identifying carriers of pathogenic variants. The BCNS Colloquium Group proposed criteria in 2011 that required 1 major criterion with molecular diagnosis, two major criteria without molecular diagnosis, or one major and two minor criteria without molecular diagnosis.[58] PTCH1 pathogenic variants are found in 60% to 85% of patients who meet clinical criteria for BCNS.[59-61] Most notably, BCNS is associated with the formation of both benign and malignant neoplasms. The strongest benign neoplasm association is with ovarian fibromas, diagnosed in 14% to 24% of females affected by BCNS.[52,56,62] BCNS-associated ovarian fibromas are more likely to be bilateral and calcified than sporadic ovarian fibromas.[63] Ameloblastomas, aggressive tumors of the odontogenic epithelium in the jaw, have also been proposed as a diagnostic criterion for BCNS, but most groups do not include it at this time.[64]

Other associated benign neoplasms include gastric hamartomatous polyps,[65] congenital pulmonary cysts,[66] cardiac fibromas,[67] meningiomas,[68-70] craniopharyngiomas,[71] fetal rhabdomyomas,[72] leiomyomas,[73] mesenchymomas,[74] basaloid follicular hamartomas,[75] and nasal dermoid tumors. Development of meningiomas and ependymomas occurring postradiation therapy has been documented in the general pediatric population; radiation therapy for syndrome-associated intracranial processes may be partially responsible for a subset of these benign tumors in individuals with BCNS.[76-78] In addition, radiation therapy of malignant medulloblastomas in the BCNS population may result in many cutaneous BCCs in the radiation ports. Similarly, treatment of BCC of the skin with radiation therapy may result in induction of large numbers of additional BCCs.[51,52,73]

Individuals who met clinical criteria for BCNS and had PTCH1 pathogenic variants were more likely be diagnosed at younger ages than individuals without PTCH1 pathogenic variants (19 y and 36 y, respectively). Individuals who met clinical criteria and had PTCH1 pathogenic variants were also more likely to have clinical manifestations, including jaw cysts (with PTCH1 variants, 63%; without PTCH1 variants, 34%), bifid ribs (with PTCH1 variants, 56%; without PTCH1 variants, 34%), or any skeletal findings (with PTCH1 variants, 74%; without PTCH1 variants, 51%).[61] There were also genotype-phenotype differences. Individuals with missense variants in PTCH1 had a later median age of diagnosis (26 y), fewer BCCs, and decreased incidence of jaw cysts than individuals with other types of PTCH1 pathogenic variants.

The diagnostic criteria for BCNS are described in Table 1 below.

Of greatest concern with BCNS are associated malignant neoplasms, the most common of which is BCC. BCC in individuals with BCNS may appear during childhood as small acrochordon-like lesions, while larger lesions demonstrate more classic cutaneous features.[79] Nonpigmented BCCs are more common than pigmented lesions.[80] The age at first BCC diagnosis associated with BCNS ranges from 3 to 53 years, with a mean age of 21.4 years; the vast majority of individuals are diagnosed with their first BCC before age 20 years.[56,62] Most BCCs are located on sun-exposed sites, but individuals with greater than 100 BCCs have a more uniform distribution of BCCs over the body.[80] Case series have suggested that up to 1 in 200 individuals with BCC demonstrate findings supportive of a diagnosis of BCNS.[42] BCNS has rarely been reported in individuals with darker skin pigmentation; however, significantly fewer BCCs are found in individuals of African or Mediterranean ancestry.[56,81,82] Despite the rarity of BCC in this population, reported cases document full expression of the noncutaneous manifestations of BCNS.[82] However, in individuals of African ancestry who have received radiation therapy, significant basal cell tumor burden has been reported within the radiation port distribution.[56,73] Thus, cutaneous pigmentation may protect against the mutagenic effects of UV but not against ionizing radiation.

Variants in other genes associated with an increased risk of BCC in the general population appear to modify the age of BCC onset in individuals with BCNS. A study of 125 individuals with BCNS found that a variant in MC1R (Arg151Cys) was associated with an early median age of onset of 27 years (95% CI, 20–34), compared with individuals who did not carry the risk allele and had a median age of BCC of 34 years (95% CI, 30–40) (HR, 1.64; 95% CI, 1.04–2.58, P = .034). A variant in the TERT-CLPTM1L gene showed a similar effect, with individuals with the risk allele having a median age of BCC of 31 years (95% CI, 28–37) relative to a median onset of 41 years (95% CI, 32–48) in individuals who did not carry a risk allele (HR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.08–1.93, P = .014).[83]

Many other malignancies have been associated with BCNS. Medulloblastoma carries the strongest association with BCNS and is diagnosed in 1% to 5% of BCNS cases. While BCNS-associated medulloblastoma is typically diagnosed between ages 2 and 3 years, sporadic medulloblastoma is usually diagnosed later in childhood, between the ages of 6 and 10 years.[52,56,62,84] A desmoplastic phenotype occurring around age 2 years is very strongly associated with BCNS and carries a more favorable prognosis than sporadic classic medulloblastoma.[85,86] Up to three times more males than females with BCNS are diagnosed with medulloblastoma.[87] As with other malignancies, treatment of medulloblastoma with ionizing radiation has resulted in numerous BCCs within the radiation field.[52,68] Other reported malignancies include ovarian carcinoma,[88] ovarian fibrosarcoma,[89,90] astrocytoma,[91] melanoma,[92] Hodgkin disease,[93,94] rhabdomyosarcoma,[95] and undifferentiated sinonasal carcinoma.[96]

Odontogenic keratocysts–or keratocystic odontogenic tumors (KCOTs), as renamed by the World Health Organization working group–are one of the major features of BCNS.[97] Demonstration of clonal LOH of common tumor suppressor genes, including PTCH1, supports the transition of terminology to reflect a neoplastic process.[48] Less than one-half of KCOTs from individuals with BCNS show LOH of PTCH1.[54,98] The tumors are lined with a thin squamous epithelium and a thin corrugated layer of parakeratin. Increased mitotic activity in the tumor epithelium and potential budding of the basal layer with formation of daughter cysts within the tumor wall may be responsible for the high rates of recurrence post simple enucleation.[97,99] In a recent case series of 183 consecutively excised KCOTs, 6% of individuals demonstrated an association with BCNS.[97] A study that analyzed the rate of PTCH1 pathogenic variants in BCNS-associated KCOTs found that 11 of 17 individuals carried a germline PTCH1 pathogenic variant and an additional 3 individuals had somatic variants in this gene.[100] Individuals with germline PTCH1 pathogenic variants had an early age of KCOT presentation. KCOTs occur in 65% to 100% of individuals with BCNS,[56,101] with higher rates of occurrence in young females.[102]

Palmoplantar pits are another major finding in BCC and occur in 70% to 80% of individuals with BCNS.[62] When these pits occur together with early-onset BCC and/or KCOTs, they are considered diagnostic for BCNS.[103]

Several characteristic radiological findings have been associated with BCNS, including lamellar calcification of falx cerebri in the brain;[104,105] fused, splayed or bifid ribs;[106] and flame-shaped lucencies or pseudocystic bone lesions of the phalanges, carpal, tarsal, long bones, pelvis, and calvaria by diagnostic x-ray imaging.[60] Imaging for rib abnormalities may be useful when establishing a BCNS diagnosis in young children, who may not have fully manifested BCNS features that are detected during physical examination. The presence of skeletal abnormalities appears to affect BCC number and severity in affected individuals. In one study, individuals with BCNS and skeletal findings had a mean of 120 more BCCs than those who had BCNS without skeletal findings. Individuals with two or more skeletal changes also had an increased risk of advanced or metastatic BCC (OR, 2.45; 95% CI, 1.01–5.91).[107]

Table 2 summarizes the frequency and median age of onset of nonmalignant findings associated with BCNS.

Individuals with PTCH2 pathogenic variants may have a milder phenotype of BCNS than those with PTCH1 variants. Characteristic features such as palmar/plantar pits, macrocephaly, falx calcification, hypertelorism, and coarse face may be absent in these individuals.[108]

A 9p22.3 microdeletion syndrome that includes the PTCH1 locus has been described in ten children.[109] All patients had facial features typical of BCNS, including a broad forehead, but they had other features variably including craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay. At the time of the report, none had basal cell skin cancer. On the basis of their hemizygosity of the PTCH1 gene, these patients are presumably at an increased risk of basal cell skin cancer.

Germline pathogenic variants in SUFU, a major negative regulator of the hedgehog pathway, have been identified in a small number of individuals with a clinical phenotype resembling that of BCNS.[46,47,110] These pathogenic variants were first identified in individuals with childhood medulloblastoma,[111] and the incidence of medulloblastoma appears to be much higher in individuals with BCNS associated with SUFU pathogenic variants than in those with PTCH1 variants.[46] One study found that 33% of individuals who had SUFU pathogenic variants and met clinical criteria for BCNS also had medulloblastomas.[61] In comparison, only 2.4% of individuals with PTCH1 pathogenic variants had medulloblastomas (P = .009). SUFU pathogenic variants may also be associated with an increased predisposition to meningioma (SUFU pathogenic variants, 22%; PTCH1 pathogenic variants, 2%).[61,70,110,112] Conversely, odontogenic jaw keratocysts appear less frequently in this population (SUFU pathogenic variants, 0%; PTCH1 pathogenic variants, 63%). Some clinical laboratories offer genetic testing for SUFU pathogenic variants for individuals with BCNS. A chart review of children with medulloblastomas who carried SUFU pathogenic variants found that only 23% of them (5 of 22) met clinical criteria for BCNS.[113] Thirty-six percent of these children died within a year of receiving their medulloblastoma diagnoses, mostly due to tumor progression. A variety of subsequent tumors were reported in these children and family members who were also SUFU carriers, but only one individual had multiple BCCs. This finding suggests that BCNS disease presentation in SUFU carriers is different from that seen in individuals with PTCH1 pathogenic variants. Three of the 22 children in this study had de novo SUFU pathogenic variants.

DNA repair genes

In addition to pathogenic variants in genes primarily associated with BCC, other cancer-associated genes may confer an increased risk for BCC. A study of 61 individuals with a high number of BCCs (mean, 11 BCCs; range, 6–65) underwent genetic testing for 29 high-penetrance cancer susceptibility genes. Thirteen pathogenic variants were found in 12 of 61 individuals (19.7%). This was higher than expected compared with individuals in the Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC) database (3%). All of the genes with pathogenic variants were involved in DNA repair, suggesting that defects in DNA repair pathways may increase the risk of BCC. Of these 61 individuals, 21 (34.4%) had a previous diagnosis of another cancer including melanoma, breast, colon, and prostate cancers.

Xeroderma pigmentosum

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is a hereditary disorder of nucleotide excision repair that results in cutaneous malignancies in the first decade of life.[114] Affected individuals have an increased sensitivity to sunlight, resulting in a markedly increased risk of SCCs, BCCs, and melanomas. For more information, see the section on Xeroderma pigmentosum in the Squamous Cell Carcinoma section.

Rare syndromes

Screening

As detailed further below, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force does not recommend regular screening for the early detection of any cutaneous malignancies, including BCC. However, once a BCC is detected on the skin of an individual, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network recommends that he/she have a complete skin examination biannually or annually for the first 5 years after the BCC is detected. After 5 years, skin examinations are recommended at least once a year for life.[142]

Table 4 summarizes available clinical practice guidelines for the surveillance of individuals with BCNS.

Level of evidence: 5

Primary prevention

Avoidance of excessive cumulative and sporadic sun exposure is important in reducing the risk of BCC, along with other cutaneous malignancies. Scheduling activities outside of the peak hours of UV radiation, utilizing sun-protective clothing and hats, using sunscreen liberally, and strictly avoiding tanning beds are all reasonable steps towards minimizing future risk of skin cancer.[144] For patients with particular genetic susceptibility (such as BCNS), avoidance or minimization of ionizing radiation is essential to reducing future tumor burden.

Level of evidence: 2aii

Chemoprevention

The role of various systemic retinoids, including isotretinoin and acitretin, has been explored in the chemoprevention and treatment of multiple BCCs, particularly in BCNS patients. In one study of isotretinoin use in 12 patients with multiple BCCs, including 5 patients with BCNS, tumor regression was noted, with decreasing efficacy as the tumor diameter increased.[145] However, the results were insufficient to recommend use of systemic retinoids for treatment of BCC. Three additional patients, including one with BCNS, were followed long-term for evaluation of chemoprevention with isotretinoin, demonstrating significant decrease in the number of tumors per year during treatment.[145] Although the rate of tumor development tends to increase sharply upon discontinuation of systemic retinoid therapy, in some patients the rate remains lower than their pretreatment rate, allowing better management and control of their cutaneous malignancies.[145-147] In summary, the use of systemic retinoids for chemoprevention of BCC is reasonable in high-risk patients, including patients with xeroderma pigmentosum. For more information, see the Squamous Cell Carcinoma section.

A patient’s cumulative and evolving tumor load should be evaluated carefully in light of the potential long-term use of a medication class with cumulative and idiosyncratic side effects. Given the possible side-effect profile, systemic retinoid use is best managed by a practitioner with particular expertise and comfort with the medication class. However, for all potentially childbearing women, strict avoidance of pregnancy during the systemic retinoid course—and for 1 month after completion of isotretinoin and 3 years after completion of acitretin—is essential to avoid potentially fatal and devastating fetal malformations. In the United States, isotretinoin can only be prescribed through the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-mandated iPledge program.

Level of evidence (retinoids): 2aii

In a phase II study of 41 patients with BCNS, vismodegib (an inhibitor of the hedgehog pathway) has been shown to reduce the per-patient annual rate of new BCCs requiring surgery.[148] Existing BCCs also regressed for these patients during daily treatment with 150 mg of oral vismodegib. While patients treated had visible regression of their tumors, biopsy demonstrated residual microscopic malignancies at the site, and tumors progressed after the discontinuation of the therapy. Adverse effects included taste disturbance, muscle cramps, hair loss, and weight loss and led to discontinuation of the medication in 54% of subjects. A subsequent, open-label, phase II study included 37 patients from the same cohort who continued vismodegib for up to a total of 36 months.[149] Patients treated with vismodegib had a lower mean incidence of new, surgically eligible BCCs than did placebo-treated patients (P < .0001). However, only 17% of patients tolerated continuous vismodegib for the full 36 months. Tumors reappeared after treatment was stopped, but patients who resumed treatment again experienced tumor response. The duration of benefit after stopping vismodegib appeared to be proportional to the duration and compliance of taking the drug during treatment. Intermittent dosing schedules of vismodegib (8 weeks on/8 weeks off after an initial schedule of daily dosing for 24 weeks or 12 weeks on/8 weeks off) have also been shown to be effective in the reduction of BCCs in the BCNS population, although there has been no direct comparison between continuous dosing and intermittent dosing schedules.[150] On the basis of the side-effect profile and rate of disease recurrence after discontinuation of the medication, additional study regarding optimal dosing of vismodegib is ongoing.

Level of evidence (vismodegib): 1aii

A phase III, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluated the effects of oral nicotinamide (vitamin B₃) in 386 individuals with a history of at least two keratinocyte carcinomas (BCC or SCC) within 5 years before study enrollment.[151] After 12 months of treatment, those taking nicotinamide 500 mg twice daily had a 20% reduction in the incidence of new BCCs (95% CI, 6%–39%; P = .12). The rate of new keratinocyte carcinomas was 23% lower in the nicotinamide group (95% CI, 4%–38%; P = .02) than in the placebo group. No clinically significant differences in adverse events were observed between the two groups, and there was no evidence of benefit after discontinuation of nicotinamide. Of note, this study was not conducted in a population with an identified genetic predisposition to BCC.

Level of evidence (nicotinamide): 1aii

Treatment

Treatment of individual BCCs in BCNS is generally the same as for sporadic basal cell cancers. Due to the large number of lesions on some patients, this can present a surgical challenge. Field therapy with imiquimod or photodynamic therapy are attractive options, as they can treat multiple tumors simultaneously.[152,153] However, given the radiosensitivity of patients with BCNS, radiation as a therapeutic option for large tumors should be avoided.[56] There are no randomized trials, but the isolated case reports suggest that field therapy has similar results as in sporadic basal cell cancer, with higher success rates for superficial cancers than for nodular cancers.[152,153]

Consensus guidelines for the use of methylaminolevulinate photodynamic therapy in BCNS recommend that this modality may best be used for superficial BCC of all sizes and for nodular BCC less than 2 mm thick.[154] Monthly therapy with photodynamic therapy may be considered for these patients as clinically indicated.

Level of evidence (imiquimod and photodynamic therapy): 4

Topical treatment with LDE225, a Smoothened agonist, has also been investigated for the treatment of BCC in a small number of patients with BCNS with promising results;[155] however, this medication is not approved in this formulation by the FDA.

Level of evidence (LDE225): 1

In addition to its effects on the prevention of BCCs in patients with BCNS, vismodegib may also have a palliative effect on KCOTs found in this population. An initial report indicated that the use of GDC-0449, the hedgehog pathway inhibitor now known as vismodegib, resulted in resolution of KCOTs in one patient with BCNS.[156] Another small study found that four of six patients who took 150 mg of vismodegib daily had a reduction in the size of KCOTs.[157] None of the six patients in this study had new KCOTs or an increase in the size of existing KCOTs while being treated, and one patient had a sustained response that lasted 9 months after treatment was discontinued.

Level of evidence (vismodegib): 3diii

Sun exposure and other risk factors

Sun exposure is the major known environmental factor associated with the development of skin cancer of all types; however, different patterns of sun exposure are associated with each major type of skin cancer.[5-7] Unlike BCC, SCC is associated with chronic exposure, rather than intermittent, intense exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Occupational exposure is the characteristic pattern of sun exposure that is associated with SCC.[5] Other agents and factors associated with SCC risk include tanning beds, arsenic, therapeutic radiation (such as psoralen and UVA therapy for psoriasis), chronic skin ulceration, and immunosuppression.[8-16] For more information about exposures that can cause skin cancer in the general population, see Skin Cancer Prevention.

Characteristics of the skin

Like melanoma and BCC, SCC occurs more frequently in individuals with lighter skin than in those with darker skin.[5,17] A case-control study of 415 cases and 415 controls showed similar findings; relative to Fitzpatrick type I skin, individuals with increasingly darker skin had decreased risks of skin cancer (odds ratios [ORs], 0.6, 0.3, and 0.1, for Fitzpatrick types II, III, and IV, respectively).[18] The same study found that blue eyes and blond/red hair were also associated with increased risks of SCC, with crude ORs of 1.7 (95% CI, 1.2–2.3) for blue eyes, 1.5 (95% CI, 1.1–2.1) for blond hair, and 2.2 (95% CI, 1.5–3.3) for red hair. For more information, see the section on Pigmentary characteristics in the Melanoma section.

However, SCC can also occur in individuals with darker skin. An Asian registry based in Singapore reported an increase in skin cancer in that geographic area, with an incidence rate of 8.9 per 100,000 person-years. Incidence of SCC, however, was shown to be on the decline.[17] SCC is the most common form of skin cancer in Black individuals in the United States and in certain parts of Africa; the mortality rate for this disease is relatively high in these populations.[19,20] Epidemiologic characteristics of, and prevention strategies for, SCC in those individuals with darker skin remain areas of investigation.

Freckling of the skin and reaction of the skin to sun exposure have been identified as other risk factors for SCC.[21] Individuals with heavy freckling on the forearm were found to have about a fourfold increase in SCC risk if moderate or heavy freckling was present in childhood or as an adult.[22] The degree of SCC risk corresponded to the amount of freckling. In this study, the inability of the skin to tan and its propensity to burn were also significantly associated with risk of SCC (OR of 1.54 for burn/blisters and 12.44 for freckles/no tan).

The presence of scars on the skin can also increase the risk of SCC, although the process of carcinogenesis in this setting may take years or even decades. SCCs arising in chronic wounds are referred to as Marjolin’s ulcers. The mean time for development of carcinoma in these wounds is estimated at 26 years.[23] One case report documents the occurrence of cancer in a wound that was incurred 59 years earlier.[24]

Immunosuppression

Immunosuppression also contributes to the formation of BCCs and SCCs. Among solid-organ transplant recipients, the risk of SCC is 65 to 250 times higher, and the risk of BCC is 10 times higher than that observed in the general population, although the risks vary with transplant type and with the immunosuppressive agent used.[25-28] BCCs and SCCs in high-risk patients (solid-organ transplant recipients and chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients) occur at a younger age, are more common and more aggressive, and have a higher risk of recurrence and metastatic spread than these cancers do in the general population.[29,30] Additionally, there is a high risk of second SCCs.[31,32] In one study, more than 65% of kidney transplant recipients developed subsequent SCCs after their first diagnosis.[31] Among Medicare patients with an intact immune system, BCCs occur as frequently as SCCs;[3] in transplant patients, SCCs outnumber BCCs by a 2:1 ratio.

Personal history of BCC, SCC, and melanoma skin cancers

A personal history of BCC or SCC is strongly associated with subsequent SCC. A study from Ireland showed that individuals with a history of BCC had a 14% higher incidence of subsequent SCC; for men with a history of BCC, the subsequent SCC risk was 27% higher.[33] In the same report, individuals with melanoma were also 2.5 times more likely to report a subsequent SCC. There is an approximate 20% increased risk of a subsequent lesion within the first year after a skin cancer has been diagnosed. The mean age of occurrence for these cancers is the middle of the sixth decade of life.[34-39]

A Swedish study of 224 melanoma probands and 944 of their first-degree relatives (FDRs) from 154 CDKN2A wild-type families and 11,680 matched controls showed that personal and family histories of melanoma increased the risk of SCC, with relative risks (RRs) of 9.1 (95% CI, 6.0–13.7) for personal history and 3.4 (95% CI, 2.2–5.2) for family history.[40] Another study of 216,115 individuals from the Nurses’ Health Study, the Nurses’ Health Study 2, and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study found that individuals with a family history of melanoma showed a 22% increased risk of SCC (hazard ratio,1.22; 95% CI, 1.06–1.40).[41]

Family history of squamous cell carcinoma or associated premalignant lesions

Although the literature is scant on this subject, a family history of SCC may increase the risk of SCC in FDRs. In an independent survey-based study of 415 SCC cases and 415 controls, SCC risk was increased in individuals with a family history of SCC (adjusted OR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.0–11.6), even after adjustment for skin type, hair color, and eye color.[18] This risk was elevated to an OR of 5.6 in those with a family history of melanoma (95% CI, 1.6–19.7), 9.8 in those with a family history of BCC (95% CI, 2.6–36.8), and 10.5 in those with a family history of multiple types of skin cancer (95% CI, 2.7–29.6). Review of the Swedish Family Center Database showed that individuals with at least one sibling or parent affected with SCC, in situ SCC (Bowen disease), or actinic keratosis had a twofold to threefold increased risk of invasive and in situ SCC relative to the general population.[42,43] Increased number of tumors in parents was associated with increased risk to the offspring. Of note, diagnosis of the proband at an earlier age was not consistently associated with a trend of increased incidence of SCC in the FDR, as would be expected in most hereditary syndromes because of germline pathogenic variants. Further analysis of the Swedish population-based data estimates genetic risk effects of 8% and familial shared-environmental effects of 18%.[44] Thus, shared environmental and behavioral factors likely account for some of the observed familial clustering of SCC.

A study on the heritability of cancer among 80,309 monozygotic and 123,382 dizygotic twins showed that NMSCs have a heritability of 43% (95% CI, 26%–59%), suggesting that almost half of the risk of NMSC is caused by inherited factors.[45] Additionally, the cumulative risk of NMSC was 1.9-fold higher for monozygotic than for dizygotic twins (95% CI, 1.8–2.0).[45]

Xeroderma pigmentosum

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is a hereditary disorder of nucleotide excision repair that results in cutaneous malignancies in the first decade of life.[47] Affected individuals have an increased sensitivity to sunlight, resulting in a markedly increased risk of SCCs, BCCs, and melanomas. One report found that keratinocyte carcinomas (BCC and SCC) were increased 150-fold in individuals with XP; for those younger than 20 years, the prevalence has been estimated to be 5,000 to 10,000 times what would be expected in the general population.[48,49]

The natural history of this disease begins in the first year of life, when sun sensitivity becomes apparent, and xerosis (dry skin) and pigmentary changes may occur in the sun-exposed skin. About one-half of XP patients have a history of severe burning on minimal sun exposure. Other XP patients do not have this reaction but develop freckle-like pigmentation before age 2 years on sun-exposed sites. These manifestations progress to skin atrophy and formation of telangiectasias. Approximately one-half of people with this disorder will develop BCC or SCC, and approximately one-quarter of these individuals will develop melanoma.[48] In the absence of sun avoidance, the median age of diagnosis for any skin cancer is 8 to 9 years.[48-50] On average, BCCs and SCCs occur at a younger age than melanoma in the XP population.[49]

Noncutaneous manifestations of XP can include ophthalmologic, neurological, and aging abnormalities. Cornea and eyelids abnormalities in XP can be linked to UV radiation exposure. Examples of ophthalmologic abnormalities can include the following: keratitis, corneal opacification, ectropion, entropion, hyperpigmentation of the eyelids, loss of eyelashes, and cancer (including conjunctival and corneal cancers).[51] About 25% of the patients with XP examined at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) between 1971 and 2009 had progressive neurological degeneration.[49] Features of neurological degeneration can include the following: microcephaly, progressive sensorineural hearing loss, diminished deep tendon reflexes, seizures, and cognitive impairment. Neurological degeneration, which is most commonly observed in individuals with complementation groups XPA and XPD, was associated with a shorter lifespan (median age of death was 29 years in individuals with neurological degeneration and 37 years in individuals without neurological degeneration).[49] A subset of patients who have the skin and eye manifestations associated with XP also exhibit severe neurological manifestations, dwarfism, and delayed development. This severe form of XP is known as De Sanctis-Cacchione syndrome. Individuals with XP may also experience differences with aging. In a small study, 18 postmenopausal women with XP had a high frequency of premature aging, with a median age of menopause occurring at 29.5 years in the XP group (range, 18.0–49.5 y) and 52.9 years in the U.S. general population.[52]

A variety of noncutaneous neoplasms–most notably SCC on the tip of the tongue, central nervous system cancers, hematologic cancers, thyroid cancers, gynecologic cancers, and lung cancers in smokers–have been reported in people with XP.[48,53,54] The RR for internal cancers is estimated to be 34- to 50-fold higher in individuals with XP than in individuals in the general population.[48,54] A report on 434 patients with XP in four international cohorts (United States, United Kingdom, France, and Brazil) found an internal cancers rate of 11.3% in individuals with XP, with the average age of diagnosis occurring 50 years earlier than that of individuals in the general U.S. population. Patients with pathogenic variants in the XPC gene (especially those from North Africa with a pathogenic delTG founder variant) had higher cancer risks than patients with pathogenic variants in other XP genes.[54]

The inheritance for XP is autosomal recessive. Seven complementation groups have been associated with this disorder. About 40% of the XP cases seen at the NIH were XPC. ERCC2 (XPD) pathogenic variants were present in about 20%. Complementation group A, due to a pathogenic variant in XPA, accounts for approximately 10% of cases.[49] Other variant genes in this disorder include ERCC3 (XPB), DDB2 (XPE), ERCC4 (XPF), and ERCC5 (XPG). An XPH group had been described but is now considered to be a subgroup of the XPD group.[55] Heterozygotes for pathogenic variants in XP genes are generally asymptomatic.[56] However, one study reported a threefold increase in BCC in Japanese individuals who were heterozygous for XPA pathogenic variants.[57] Founder pathogenic variants in XPA (R228A) and XPC (V548A fs X572) have been identified in North African populations, and a founder pathogenic variant in XPC resulting in a splice alteration (IVS 12-1G>C) has been found in an East African (Mahori) population. It has been proposed that direct screening for these pathogenic variants would be appropriate in these populations.[58-61] A founder pathogenic variant at the 3’ splice acceptor site of intron 3 in the XPA gene is present in approximately 1% of the population in Japan representing nearly 1 million people.[62]

The function of the XP genes is to recognize and repair photoproducts from UV radiation. The main photoproducts are formed at adjacent pyrimidines and consist of cyclobutane dimers and pyrimidine-pyrimidone (6-4) photoproducts. The product of XPC is involved in the initial identification of DNA damage; it binds to the lesion to act as a marker for further repair. The DDB2 (XPE) protein is also part of this process and works with XPC. The XPA gene product maintains single-strand regions during repair and works with the TFIIH transcription factor complex. The TFIIH complex includes the gene products of both ERCC3 (XPB) and ERCC2 (XPD), which function as DNA helicases in the unwinding of the DNA. The ERCC4 (XPF) and ERCC5 (XPG) proteins act as DNA endonucleases to create single-strand nicks in the 5’ and 3’ sides of the damaged DNA with resulting excision of about 28 to 30 nucleotides, including the photoproduct. DNA polymerases replace the lesion with the correct sequence, and a DNA ligase completes the repair.[47,63]

An XP variant that is associated with pathogenic variants in POLH (XPV) is responsible for approximately 10% of reported cases.[64] This gene encodes for the error-prone bypass polymerase (polymerase eta) which, unlike other genes associated with XP, is not involved in nucleotide excision repair. People with polymerase eta pathogenic variants have the same cutaneous and ocular findings as other XP patients but do not have progressive neurologic degeneration.[65] A founder pathogenic variant resulting in a deletion of exon 10 was seen in 16 of 16 individuals from ten Tunisian consanguineous families.[66]

Work on genotype-phenotype correlations among the XP complementation groups continues; however, evidence suggests that the specific pathogenic variant may have more influence on the phenotype than the complementation group.[47,67] The main distinguishing features appear to be the presence or absence of burning on minimal sun exposure, skin cancer, and progressive neurologic abnormalities. All complementation groups are characterized by the presence of cutaneous neoplasias, but skin cancers may be more common in XPC, XPE, and XPV groups.[67]. There is additional clinical variation within each complementation group. Mild to severe neurologic impairment has been described in individuals with XPA pathogenic variants. Individuals with XPA pathogenic variants in the DNA binding region (amino acids 98–219) may have a more severe presentation that includes neurological findings.[68] Individuals within the XPC complementation group have higher incidences of ocular damage.[67] A very small number of people in the XPB, XPD, and XPG complementation groups have been identified as having xeroderma pigmentosum-Cockayne syndrome (XP-CS) complex. These individuals have characteristics of both disorders, including an increased predisposition to cutaneous neoplasms and developmental delay, visual and hearing impairment, and central and peripheral nervous system dysfunction. It should be noted that people with Cockayne syndrome without XP do not appear to have an increased cancer risk.[69] Similarly, trichothiodystrophy (TTD) is another genetic disorder that can occur in combination with XP. Individuals affected solely with TTD do not appear to have an increased cancer incidence, but some affected with XP/TTD have an increased risk of cutaneous neoplasia. The complementation groups connected with XP/TTD (XPD and XPB) and XP-CS (XPB, XPD, and XPG) are associated with defects in both transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair and global genomic nucleotide excision repair. In contrast, XP complementation groups C and E have defects only in global genomic nucleotide excision repair.[47,70] In addition, individuals in the XPA, XPD and XPG groups may exhibit severe neurologic abnormalities without symptoms of Cockayne syndrome or TTD. Cerebro-oculo-facio-skeletal syndrome, which has been described with some ERCC2 (XPD) or XP-CS pathogenic variants, does not appear to confer an increased risk of skin cancer.[71-74]

The diagnosis of XP is made on the basis of clinical findings and family history. Functional assays to assess DNA repair capabilities after exposure to radiation have been developed, but these tests are currently not clinically available in the United States. Clinical genetic testing using sequence analysis to identify pathogenic variants is available for multiple XP-associated genes; the list can be found at the NIH Genetic Testing Registry.

Multiple self-healing squamous epitheliomata (Ferguson-Smith syndrome)

Multiple self-healing squamous epitheliomata (MSSE), or Ferguson-Smith syndrome, first described in 1934, is characterized by invasive skin tumors that are histologically identical to sporadic cutaneous SCC, but they resolve spontaneously without intervention. Linkage analysis of affected families showed association with the long arm of chromosome 9, and haplotype analysis localized the gene to 9q22.3 between D9S197 and D9S1809.[75] Transforming growth factor beta-receptor 1 (TGFBR1) was identified through next-generation sequencing as the gene responsible for MSSE. Loss-of-function pathogenic variants in TGFBR1 have been identified in 18 of 22 affected families.[76] Gain-of-function variants in TGFBR1 are associated with unrelated Marfan-like syndromes, such as Loeys-Dietz syndrome, which have no described increase in skin cancer risk.

Somatic loss of heterozygosity in Ferguson-Smith–related SCC has been demonstrated at this genomic location, suggesting that TGFBR1 can act as a tumor suppressor gene.[77] The long arm of chromosome 9 has also been a site of interest in sporadic SCC. Up to 65% of sporadic SCCs have been found to have loss of heterozygosity at 9q22.3 between D9S162 and D9S165.[77]

Oculocutaneous albinism

Albinism is a major risk factor for skin cancer in individuals of African ancestry.[20,78] One report describing a cohort of 350 albinos in Tanzania found 104 cutaneous cancers; of these, 100 were SCCs, three were BCCs, and one was melanoma.[79] The median age for this population was 10 years. Similar proportions of skin cancer diagnoses were observed in a Nigerian population, with 62% of dermatological malignancies diagnosed as SCC, 16% as melanoma, and 8% as BCC.[20] Of note, some melanomas found in individuals with albinism do contain melanin.[80]

SCC occurring at extremely early ages is a hallmark of oculocutaneous albinism. In a cohort of nearly 1,000 Nigerian patients with albinism, all had malignant or premalignant cutaneous lesions by age 20 years.[81]

Two types of oculocutaneous albinism are known to be associated with increased risk of SCC of the skin. Oculocutaneous albinism type 1, or tyrosinase-related albinism, is caused by pathogenic variants in the tyrosinase gene, TYR, located on the long arm of chromosome 11. This type of albinism accounts for about one-half of cases in individuals of European ancestry.[82] The OCA2 gene, also known as the P gene, is altered in oculocutaneous albinism type 2, or tyrosinase-positive albinism. Both disorders are autosomal recessive, with frequent compound heterozygosity. A 2.7 kb intragenic deletion in the OCA2 gene is a common founder pathogenic variant in sub-Saharan Africa and accounts for most OCA2-related albinism cases in this region.[83]

Tyrosinase acts as the critical enzyme in the synthesis of melanin in melanocytes. A variant in this gene in oculocutaneous albinism type 1 produces proteins with minimal to no activity, corresponding to the OCA1B and OCA1A phenotypes, respectively. Individuals with OCA1B have light skin, hair, and eye coloring at birth but develop some pigment during their lifetimes, while the coloring of those with OCA1A does not darken with age.

The gene product of OCA2 is a protein found in the membrane of melanosomes. Its function is unknown, but it may play a role in maintaining the structure or pH of this environment.[84] Murine models with variants in this gene had significantly decreased melanin production compared with normal controls.[85] In one international study of individuals with albinism, biallelic variants in OCA2 were found in 17% of participants.[86]

Genetic variants in SLC45A2 (MATP associated with OCA4), SLC24A5 (associated with OCA6), and TYRP1 (tyrosinase-related protein 1 associated with OCA3) are associated with less common types of oculocutaneous albinism. Reported incidences for these genes in an international population of patients with albinism are 7% for SLC45A2, 1% for TYRP1, and less than 0.5% for SLC24A5.[86] SLC45A2 is found in 24% of oculocutaneous albinism cases in Japan, making it the most common type of albinism among Japanese individuals with identifiable variants.[87] A study of 22 individuals of Italian ancestry without pathogenic variants in TYR, OCA2, or TYRP1 found 5 individuals with biallelic variants in SLC45A2, 4 of whom met clinical criteria for a diagnosis of oculocutaneous albinism.[88] Collectively, more than 600 unique ocular albinism–related genetic variants have been identified.[89] OCA4 is thought to be similar to other types of albinism, but the increased risk of SCC of the skin in people with these variants has not been quantified. Skin cancer was not identified in a study of 30 individuals with OCA4.[90] Of note, a meta-analysis demonstrated that the SLC45A2 p.Phe374Leu variant was protective for melanoma, with an OR of 0.41 (95% CI, 0.33–0.50; P = 3.50 x 10-17).[91] However, at this time, it should be noted that clinical testing is not routinely performed for protective variants.

Additional genes associated with oculocutaneous albinism have been found in small numbers of patients. OCA5, located on chromosome 4q24, has been identified in a Pakistani family, whereas OCA6 appears to be caused by pathogenic variants in SLC24A5 on chromosome 15q21.[92-94] Pathogenic variants in C10orf11 (LRMDA) cause OCA7, which has been found in patients from the Faroe Islands and Denmark.[95] Small numbers of pathogenic variant carriers have been reported to date. One woman with OCA6 had actinic keratosis, but the incidence of skin cancers in these populations is unknown.

Although oculocutaneous albinism is inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder in most instances, one study has found that heterozygous variants in genes such as TYR, OCA2, TYRP1, and SLC45A2 are overrepresented in families with multiple cases of melanoma. Further investigation is warranted to determine if these genes may be moderate penetrance melanoma susceptibility genes in heterozygotes.[96]

Other albinism syndromes

A subgroup of albinism includes people who exhibit a triad of albinism, prolonged bleeding time, and deposition of a ceroid substance in organs such as the lungs and gastrointestinal tract. This syndrome, known as Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner but may have a pseudodominant inheritance in Puerto Rican families, owing to the high prevalence in this population.[112] The underlying cause is believed to be a defect in melanosome and lysosome transport. A number of pathogenic variants at disparate loci have been associated with this syndrome, including HPS1, HPS3, HPS4, HPS5, HPS6, HPS7 (DTNBP1), HPS8 (BLOC1S3), and HPS9 (PLDN).[113-120] Pigmentation characteristics can vary significantly in this disorder, particularly among those with HPS1 pathogenic variants, and patients report darkening of the skin and hair as they age. In a small cohort of individuals with HPS1 variants, 3 out of 40 developed cutaneous SCCs, and an additional 3 had BCCs.[121] Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome type 2, which includes increased susceptibility to infection resulting from congenital neutropenia, has been attributed to defects in AP3B1.[122]

Two additional syndromes are associated with decreased pigmentation of the skin and eyes. The autosomal recessive Chediak-Higashi syndrome is characterized by eosinophilic, peroxidase-positive inclusion bodies in early leukocyte precursors, hemophagocytosis, increased susceptibility to infection, and increased incidence of an accelerated phase lymphohistiocytosis. Pathogenic variants in the LYST gene underlie this syndrome, which is often fatal in the first decade of life.[123-125]

Griscelli syndrome, also inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, was originally described as decreased cutaneous pigmentation with hypomelanosis and neurologic deficits, but its clinical presentation is quite variable. This combination of symptoms is now designated Griscelli syndrome type 1 or Elejalde disease. It has been attributed to pathogenic variants in the MYO5A gene, which affects melanosome transport.[126] Individuals with Griscelli syndrome type 2 have decreased cutaneous pigmentation and immunodeficiency but lack neurological deficits. They also may have hemophagocytosis or lymphohistiocytosis that is often fatal, like that seen in Chediak-Higashi syndrome. Griscelli syndrome type 2 is caused by pathogenic variants in RAB27A, which is part of the same melanosome transport pathway as MYO5A.[127] Griscelli syndrome type 3 presents with hypomelanosis and does not include neurologic or immunologic disorders. Pathogenic variants in the melanophilin (MLPH) gene and MYO5A have been associated with this variant of Griscelli syndrome.[128]

Epidermolysis bullosa

There are numerous forms of epidermolysis bullosa (EB), which is characterized by cleavage and blistering of the skin. A study from the Dutch EB registry found an overall EB incidence of 41.3 per million live births and 22.4 per million population.[129] Similarly, a German study found an EB incidence of 45.1 per million live births.[130] However, a study from England and Wales found a much higher EB incidence of 67.8 per million population.[131] In the most extreme cases, EB can result in the congenital absence of the skin.[132] Dystrophic EB and junctional EB are associated with an increased risk of skin cancer, particularly SCC.[133] While the type of EB can be difficult to determine clinically, next-generation sequencing can define the EB subtype in up to 90% of cases.[134] Diagnosis of EB may be accomplished by immunofluorescence or electron microscopy.[135] The types of EB, pathogenic variants involved, and phenotypic characteristics are detailed in the following review.[136] For more information, see the EB simplex section.

Epidermodysplasia verruciformis

Pathogenic variants in either of two adjacent genes on chromosome 17q25 can cause epidermodysplasia verruciformis, a rare heritable disorder associated with increased susceptibility to human papillomavirus (HPV). Infection with certain HPV subtypes can lead to development of generalized nonresolving verrucous lesions, which develop into in situ and invasive SCCs in 30% to 60% of patients.[158] Malignant transformation is thought to occur in about half of these lesions. Approximately 90% of these lesions are attributed to HPV types 5 and 8,[159] although types 14, 17, 20, and 47 have occasionally been implicated. The association between HPV infection and increased risk of SCC has also been demonstrated in people without epidermodysplasia verruciformis; one case-control study found that HPV antibodies were found more frequently in the plasma of individuals with SCC (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.2–2.3) than in plasma from cancer-free individuals.[160]

The genes associated with this disorder, EVER1 and EVER2, were identified in 2002.[161] The inheritance pattern of these genes appears to be autosomal recessive; however, autosomal dominant inheritance has also been reported.[162-164] Both of these gene products are transmembrane proteins localized to the endoplasmic reticulum, and they likely function in signal transduction. This effect may be through regulation of zinc balance; it has been shown that these proteins form a complex with the zinc transporter 1 (ZnT-1), which is, in turn, blocked by certain HPV proteins.[165]

A recent case-control study examined the effect of a specific EVER2 polymorphism (rs7208422) on the risk of cutaneous SCC in 239 individuals with prior SCC and 432 controls. This polymorphism is a (A > T) coding single nucleotide variant in exon 8, codon 306 of the EVER2 gene. The frequency of the T allele among controls was 0.45. Homozygosity for the polymorphism caused a modest increase in SCC risk, with an adjusted OR of 1.7 (95% CI, 1.1–2.7) relative to wild-type homozygotes. In this study, those with one or more of the T alleles were also found to have increased seropositivity for any HPV and for HPV types 5 and 8, as compared with the wild type.[166]

Some evidence suggests nonallelic heterogeneity in epidermodysplasia verruciformis. An individual born to consanguineous parents with epidermodysplasia verruciformis and additional bacterial and fungal infections was found to have homozygous R115X pathogenic variants in the MST1 gene.[167] Another susceptibility locus associated with this disorder has been identified at chromosome regions 2p21-p24 through linkage analysis of an affected consanguineous family. Unlike those with pathogenic variants in the EVER1 and EVER2 genes, affected individuals linked to this genomic region were infected with HPV 20 rather than the usual HPV subtypes associated with this disorder, and this family did not have a history of cutaneous SCC.[168]

Fanconi anemia

Fanconi anemia is a complex disorder that is characterized by increased incidence of hematologic and solid tumors, including SCC of the skin. Fanconi anemia is inherited as an autosomal recessive disease. It is a relatively rare syndrome with an estimated carrier frequency of one in 181 individuals in the United States (range: 1 in 156 to 1 in 209) and a carrier frequency of up to 1 in 100 individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.[169] Leukemia is the most commonly reported cancer in this population, but increased rates of gastrointestinal, head and neck, and gynecologic cancers have also been seen.[170] By age 40 years, individuals affected with Fanconi anemia have an 8% risk per year of developing a solid tumor;[170] the median age of diagnosis for solid tumors is 26 years.[171] Multiple cases of cancers of the brain, breast, lung, and kidney (Wilms tumor) have been reported in this population.[171] Data on the incidence of NMSCs in this population are sparse; however, review of the literature suggests that the age of diagnosis is between the mid-20s and early 30s and that women seem to be affected more often than men.[171-175]

Individuals with this disease have increased susceptibility to DNA cross-linking agents (e.g., mitomycin-C or diepoxybutane) and ionizing and UV radiation. The diagnosis of this disease is made by observing increased chromosomal breakage, rearrangements, or exchanges in cells after exposure to carcinogens such as diepoxybutane.

Seventeen complementation groups have been identified for Fanconi anemia; details regarding the genes associated with these groups are listed in Table 7 below.[176] Exome sequencing has revealed that a subset of individuals can carry multiple heterozygous pathogenic variants in Fanconi anemia genes,[177] which may impact phenotypic presentation.

The proteins involved with DNA crosslink repairs are called the FANC pathway because of their involvement in Fanconi anemia.[178] They interact with several other proteins associated with hereditary cancer risk, including those in Bloom syndrome and ataxia-telangiectasia. Further investigation has revealed that FANCD1 is the same gene as BRCA2, a gene that causes predisposition to breast and ovarian cancer.[179] Other Fanconi anemia genes, FANCJ (BRIP1) and FANCN (PALB2), have also been identified as rare breast cancer susceptibility genes.[180] For more information, see the Cancer Risks, Spectrum, and Characteristics section in BRCA1 and BRCA2: Cancer Risks and Management, or see the BRIP1, PALB2, and RAD51 sections in Genetics of Breast and Gynecologic Cancers. Individuals who are heterozygous carriers of other Fanconi anemia–associated variants do not appear to have an increased cancer risk, with the possible exception of a twofold increase in breast cancer incidence in carriers of FANCC pathogenic variants.[181]

In 2018, a group reported a significant increase in SCC cases (OR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.26–2.26) associated with a specific BRCA2 allele, which is relatively prevalent in the Icelandic population (K3326X; allele frequency, 1.1%).[182] This allele results in normal production of an altered protein, and the authors hypothesized carriers have an increased sensitivity to environmental factors, which require DNA repair. This variant was also associated with an increased risk of small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, and ovarian cancer (but lower than the risk associated with the BRCA pathogenic variants that decrease protein levels).

Dyskeratosis congenita (Zinsser-Cole-Engman syndrome)

Dyskeratosis congenita, like Werner syndrome, results in premature aging and is thus considered a progeroid disease. The classic clinical triad for diagnosis includes nail dystrophy, reticular pigmentation of the chest and neck, and oral leukoplakia. In addition, individuals with this disorder are at markedly increased risk of myelodysplastic syndrome, acute leukemia, and bone marrow failure. Ocular, dental, neurologic, gastrointestinal, pulmonary, and skeletal abnormalities have also been described in conjunction with this disease, but clinical expressivity is variable.[183] Developmental delay may also be present in variants of dyskeratosis congenita, such as Hoyeraal-Hreidarsson syndrome (HHS) and Revesz syndrome.

Approximately 10% of individuals with dyskeratosis congenita will develop nonhematologic tumors, often before the third decade of life.[184,185] Solid tumors may be the first manifestation of this disorder. Head and neck cancers were the most commonly reported, accounting for nearly half of the cancers observed. Cutaneous SCC occurred in about 1.5% of the subjects, and the median age at diagnosis was 21 years. These cancers are generally managed as any other SCC of the skin.

Several genes associated with telomere function (DKC1, TERC, TINF2, NHP2, NOP10, RTEL1 and TERT) have been implicated in dyskeratosis congenita; approximately one-half of the individuals with a clinical diagnosis of this disease have an identified pathogenic variant in one of these seven genes.[186-193] TERC and TINF2 are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, whereas NHP2 (NOLA2) and NOP10 (NOLA3) show autosomal recessive inheritance, and RTEL1 and TERT can be either autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive. Recessive pathogenic variants in RTEL1 can also be associated with HHS.[194] A study of more than 1,000 individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry identified a founder RTEL1 splice-site pathogenic variant, c.3791G>A (p.R1264H), that had a carrier frequency of 1% in Orthodox Ashkenazi Jewish individuals and 0.45% in the general Ashkenazi Jewish population.[195] DKC1 shows an X-linked recessive pattern. Alterations in these genes result in shortening of telomeres, which in turn leads to defects in proliferation and spontaneous chromosomal rearrangements.[196] Levels of TERC, the RNA component of the telomerase complex, are reduced in all dyskeratosis congenita patients.[197] Missense pathogenic variants in WRAP53, a gene with a protein product that facilitates trafficking of telomerase, have also been associated with an autosomal recessive form of dyskeratosis congenita.[198] Pathogenic variants in C16orf57 were identified in 6 of 132 families who did not have a variant detected in other known genes.[199] C16orf57 pathogenic variants are also associated with poikiloderma with neutropenia.[200] For more information about poikiloderma congenitale, see the Rothmund-Thomson syndrome section.

The recommended approach for diagnosis begins with a six-cell panel assay for leukocyte telomere length testing. If telomere length is in the lowest 1% for three or more cell types, molecular genetic testing is indicated.[201] Testing of DKC1 may be performed first in male probands, as pathogenic variants in this gene account for up to 36% of those identified in dyskeratosis congenita to date. Pathogenic variants in TINF2 and TERT are responsible for 11% to 24% and 6% to 10% of cases, respectively.[183,190,191,202,203]

Rothmund-Thomson syndrome

Rothmund-Thomson syndrome, also known as poikiloderma congenitale, is a heritable disorder characterized by chromosomal instability. The cutaneous presentation of this condition is an erythematous, blistering rash appearing on the face, buttocks, and extremities in early infancy. Other characteristics of this syndrome include telangiectasias, skeletal abnormalities, short stature, cataracts, and increased risk of osteosarcoma. Areas of hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation of the skin develop later in life, and BCC or SCC can develop at an early age.[204] Reports of multiple SCCs in situ have been reported in individuals as young as 16 years.[205] The precise increased risk of skin cancer is not well characterized, but the point prevalence of keratinocyte carcinomas, including both BCC and SCC, is 2% to 5% in young individuals affected by this syndrome.[206] This prevalence is clearly greater than that found in individuals in the same age group in the general population. Although increased UV sensitivity has been described, SCCs are also found in areas of the skin that are not exposed to the sun.[207]

A pathogenic variant in the gene RECQL4 is present in 66% of clinically affected individuals with Rothmund-Thomson syndrome type 2. This gene is located at 8q24.3, and inheritance is believed to be autosomal recessive. RECQL4 encodes the ATP-dependent DNA helicase Q4, which promotes DNA unwinding to allow for cellular processes such as replication, transcription, and repair. A role for this protein in repair of DNA double-strand breaks has also been suggested.[208] Pathogenic variants in similar DNA helicases lead to the inherited disorders of Bloom syndrome and Werner syndrome.

At least 19 different truncating pathogenic variants in this gene have been identified as deleterious.[209] These pathogenic variants cause severe down-regulation of RECQL4 transcripts in this subset of individuals with Rothmund-Thomson syndrome.[210] Cells deficient in RECQL4 have been found to be hypersensitive to oxidative stress, resulting in decreased DNA synthesis.[211] Deficiencies in the RecQ helicases permit hyper-recombination, thereby leading to loss of heterozygosity. Loss of heterozygosity associated with deficiencies of this protein suggests that the helicases are caretaker-type tumor suppressor proteins.[212]

Three of six families with Rothmund-Thomson syndrome type 2 were found to have homozygous pathogenic variants in the C16orf57 gene. Pathogenic variants in this gene have also been identified in individuals with dyskeratosis congenita and poikiloderma with neutropenia, suggesting that these syndromes are related;[199,200] however, skin cancer risk in these conditions is not well characterized. For more information, see the Dyskeratosis congenita (Zinsser-Cole-Engman syndrome) section.

The clinical presentation of Rothmund-Thomson syndrome type 1 is similar to that of type 2, except that individuals present with bilateral juvenile cataracts, and they do not develop osteosarcoma. A study of seven families with ten children who have features of Rothmund-Thomson syndrome type 1 identified a deep intronic splicing variant in the ANAPC1 gene.[213] Five individuals were homozygous for this variant, and three individuals had a second predicted pathogenic variant in ANAPC1 in trans. The splicing variant led to the introduction of a new exon, which caused premature termination codons with subsequent nonsense-mediated decay of ANAPC1 transcripts and reduced protein levels. ANAPC1 is a member of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome.

Bloom syndrome

Loss of genomic stability is a major cause of Bloom syndrome. This disorder shows increased chromosomal breakage and is diagnosed by increased sister chromatid exchanges on chromosomal analysis. Clinical manifestations of Bloom syndrome include severe growth retardation, recurrent infections, diabetes, chronic pulmonary disease, and an increased susceptibility to cancers of many types. A study of 290 individuals from the Bloom Syndrome Registry (enrolled from 1960 to 2021) found that 155 participants (53%) developed one or more malignancies, with an 83% cumulative incidence of any cancer type by age 40 years.[214] Median survival was 36.2 years. Median survival varied for those diagnosed with a hematologic malignancy (25.4 y) and those diagnosed with a solid tumor (37.7 y). Median survival was not adjusted by year of cancer diagnosis.[214]

Skin cancer accounts for approximately 9% of tumors in the Bloom Syndrome Registry.[215] Skin cancers occur at an early age in this population, with individuals diagnosed at a mean age of 31 years to 33 years.[214,215] Almost 12% of registry participants developed a skin cancer, with BCC occurring most often.[214] The mean age of skin cancer diagnosis was 33 years. The typical skin lesion seen in this disorder is a photosensitive erythematous telangiectatic rash that occurs in the first or second year of life.[215] Although this rash is most commonly found on the face, it can also be present on the dorsa of the hands or forearms. SCC of the skin is the third most common malignancy associated with this disorder.

The BLM gene, located on the short arm of chromosome 15, is the only gene known to be associated with Bloom syndrome. This gene encodes a 1,417-amino acid protein that is regulated by the cell cycle and demonstrates DNA-dependent ATPase and DNA duplex-unwinding activities. Its helicase domain shows considerable similarity to the RecQ subfamily of DNA helicases. Absence of this gene product is thought to destabilize other enzymes that participate in DNA replication and repair.[216,217]

This rare chromosomal breakage syndrome is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner and is characterized by loss of genomic stability. Sixty-four pathogenic variants described in the BLM gene include nucleotide insertions and deletions (41%), nonsense variants (30%), variants resulting in mis-splicing (14%), and missense variants (16%).[218,219] A specific pathogenic variant identified in the Ashkenazi Jewish population is a 6-bp deletion/7-bp insertion at nucleotide 2,281, designated as BLMASH.[220] Many of these variants result in truncation of the C-terminus, which prevents normal localization of this protein to the nucleus. Absence of functional BLM protein can cause increased rates of pathogenic variants and recombination. This somatic hypermutability leads to an increased risk of cancer at an early age in virtually every organ, including the skin.

Cells from people with Bloom syndrome have been found to have abnormal responses to UV radiation. Normal nuclear accumulation of TP53 after UV radiation was absent in 2 of 11 primary cultures from individuals with Bloom syndrome; in contrast, responses in cultures from people who have XP and ataxia-telangiectasia were normal.[221] The gene product of the BLM gene has also been found to complex with Fanconi proteins, raising the possibility of connections between the BLM and Fanconi anemia pathways for DNA stability.[222]

Werner syndrome

Like Bloom syndrome, Werner syndrome is characterized by spontaneous chromosomal instability, resulting in increased susceptibility to cancer and premature aging. Diagnostic criteria, often in the setting of consanguinity, include cataracts, short stature, premature graying or thinning of hair, and a positive 24-hour urinary hyaluronic acid test. Cardinal cutaneous manifestations of this disorder consist of sclerodermatous skin changes, ulcerations, atrophy, and pigmentation changes. Individuals with this syndrome have an average life expectancy of fewer than 50 years.[223] Cancers have an early onset and occur in up to 43% of these patients.[224] The spectrum of tumors associated with this disorder has primarily been described in the Japanese population and includes an increased incidence of sarcoma, thyroid cancers, and skin cancers.[225] Approximately 20% of the cancers reported in this syndrome are cutaneous, with melanoma and SCC of the skin accounting for 14% and 5%, respectively.[226] A study of 189 individuals with Werner syndrome estimated melanoma risk to be elevated 53-fold in these individuals.[227] SCC was less frequently diagnosed. Acral lentiginous melanomas are overrepresented, and SCCs may exhibit more aggressive behavior, with metastasis to lymph nodes and internal organs.[225,228]

Pathogenic variants in the WRN gene on chromosome 8p12-p11.2 have been identified in approximately 90% of individuals with this syndrome; no other genes are known to be associated with Werner syndrome.[224,229-232] Inheritance of this gene is believed to be autosomal recessive. The product of the WRN gene is a multifunctional protein including a DNA exonuclease and an ATP-dependent DNA helicase belonging to the RecQ subfamily. This protein may play a role in processes such as DNA repair, recombination, replication, transcription, and combined DNA functions.[233-241] Telomere dysfunction has been associated with premature aging and cancer susceptibility.[242] Other helicases with similar function are altered in other chromosomal instability syndromes, such as BLM in Bloom syndrome and RecQL4 in Rothmund-Thomson syndrome.

Pathogenic variants described in the WRN gene include all types of variants, including missense, splice-site, and large rearrangements.[243] A few founder pathogenic variants have been reported, which include a splice-site variant (previously known as IVS 25-1G→C; now known as c.3139-1G>C) found in over 50% of affected Japanese individuals.[244,245]

Pathogenic variants in the WRN gene causes loss of nuclear localization of the gene product. Intracellular levels of the mRNA and protein associated with the variant are also markedly decreased, compared with those of the wild type. Half-lives of the mRNA and protein associated with the variant are also shorter than those associated with the wild-type mRNA and protein.[246,247]

Prevention and treatment of skin cancers

A phase III, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in Australia evaluated the effects of oral nicotinamide (vitamin B₃) in 386 individuals with a history of at least two NMSCs within 5 years before study enrollment.[250] The mean age of the study participants was 66.4 years, and 63% were male. After 12 months of treatment, those taking nicotinamide 500 mg twice daily had a 30% reduction in the incidence of new SCCs (95% CI, 0%–51%; P = .05). A statistically significant reduction was also seen in actinic keratoses, the precursor skin lesions to SCCs. The rate of new NMSCs was 23% lower in the nicotinamide group (95% CI, 4%–38%, P = .02) than in the placebo group. No clinically significant differences in adverse events were observed between the two groups, and there was no evidence of benefit after discontinuation of nicotinamide. Of note, this study was not conducted in a population with an identified genetic predisposition to SCC, but it was conducted in a part of the world with a high incidence of sunlight-induced skin cancer.

Level of evidence (nicotinamide): 1aii

Because many of the syndromes described above are rare, few clinical trials have been conducted in these specific populations. However, valuable information has been developed from the clinical management experience related to skin cancer risk and treatment in the XP population. Strict sun avoidance beginning in infancy, use of protective clothing, and close clinical monitoring of the skin are key components to management of XP. Full-body photography of the skin, conjunctivae, and eyelids is recommended to aid in follow-up.[251] Although few studies on treatment of SCC in the XP population have been done, in most cases treatment is similar to what would be recommended for the general population. Actinic keratoses are treated with topical therapies such as fluorouracil (5-FU), cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen, or dermabrasion, whereas cutaneous cancers are generally managed surgically.[252]

Level of evidence: 5

Oral isotretinoin has been used as chemoprevention in XP patients with promising results. A small study of daily use of isotretinoin (13-cis retinoic acid; given as 2 mg/kg/day) reduced NMSC incidence by 63% in a small number of people with XP. Toxicities associated with this treatment included mucocutaneous symptoms, abnormalities in liver function tests and triglyceride levels, and musculoskeletal symptoms such as arthralgias, calcifications of tendons and ligaments, and osteoporosis.[253,254] Dose reduction to 0.5 mg/kg/day reduced toxicity and decreased skin cancer frequency in three of seven subjects (43%); increasing the dose to 1 mg/kg/day resulted in decreased skin cancer frequency in three of the four subjects who did not respond at the lower dose.[255] Oral isotretinoin use may be useful as a chemopreventive agent in other hereditary skin cancer syndromes, including basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS), Rombo syndrome, EB, and epidermodysplasia verruciformis.[256,257]

Level of evidence (oral isotretinoin for XP): 3aii

Level of evidence (oral isotretinoin for BCNS, Rombo syndrome, epidermodysplasia verruciformis): 5

Topical T4N5 liposome lotion, containing the bacterial enzyme T4 endonuclease V, was also investigated as a chemopreventive agent in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of 30 XP patients.[258] Although no effect was seen on incidence of SCC, 17.7 fewer actinic keratoses per year were seen in the treatment group. Additionally, 1.6 fewer BCCs per year were observed in patients being treated with this therapy. Both of these results were statistically significant. The risk of BCC was reduced by 47%, which was of borderline statistical significance. No significant adverse effects of this agent were reported. To date, this agent has not been approved for use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

Level of evidence: 1aii

For patients with XP and unresectable SCC, therapy with 5-FU has been investigated. Several treatment methods were used in this prospective study, including topical therapy to the lesions, short systemic infusion with folic acid, and continuous systemic infusion in combination with cisplatin. Topical 5-FU demonstrated some efficacy, but in some cases viable tumor remained in the deeper dermis. The systemic chemotherapy resulted in one complete response and three partial responses in a total of five patients, suggesting that this therapy may be an option for treatment of extensive lesions.[259] A dose reduction of 30% to 50% has been recommended for systemic chemotherapeutic agents in this population because of the increased sensitivity of XP cells.[260]

Level of evidence: 3diii

For patients with EB, wide local excision of SCC with 2 cm margins remains the treatment of choice. Because the extent of SCC may be difficult to assess in these patients, clearance of SCC tumors may require continuous margin control surgery (Mohs excision) or generous clinical margins. Multiple surgical sessions may be required. Closure of the subsequent defects may require tissue rearrangement or dermal substitutes.[261] Amputation may be considered as an option to reduce disease recurrence, although it is not clear that this has an impact on survival. The role of sentinel lymph node biopsy remains unclear in this population.[257]

Current guidelines recommend that individuals with EB and unresectable SCC be treated with radiation therapy, but the dose may need to be given in smaller fractions in order to decrease the risk of skin desquamation. Systemic therapy with epidermal growth factor receptor antagonists or tyrosine kinase inhibitors may also be considered for individuals with advanced SCC.[257]

Level of evidence: 5

For people who have genetic disorders other than XP, data are lacking, but general sun-safety measures remain important. Careful protection of the skin and eyes is the mainstay of prevention in all patients with increased susceptibility to skin cancer. Key points include avoidance of sun exposure at peak hours, protective clothing and lenses, and vigilant use of sunscreen. Avoidance of x-ray therapy has also been advocated for some groups with hereditary skin cancer syndromes, such as those with epidermodysplasia verruciformis.[158] However, XP patients with unresectable skin cancers or internal cancers, such as spinal cord astrocytoma or glioblastomas of the brain, have been treated successfully with standard therapeutic doses of x-ray radiation.[53] Some experts recommend dermatologic evaluation every 6 months and ophthalmologic evaluation at least annually in these high-risk populations. Guidelines for the management of patients with EB recommend skin examinations every 3 to 6 months starting at age 10 years for individuals with the RDEB-sev gen subtype of the disease.[257] For individuals with other subtypes of EB, skin examination every 6 to 12 months starting at age 20 years is recommended in the absence of an established SCC diagnosis. Dental examination every 6 months is also recommended in this population.[257]

Level of evidence: 5

For individuals with DEB, wound care is paramount. Use of silver sulfadiazine cream, medical grade honey, and soft silicone dressings can be helpful in these settings. Attention to nutritional status, which may be compromised because of esophageal strictures, iron-deficiency anemia, infection, and inflammation, is another critical consideration for wound healing for these patients. Multivitamin supplementation, often at higher doses than those routinely recommended for the general population, may be warranted.[262]

Level of evidence: 5

Maintenance of skin integrity is a key factor for management of patients with JEB. A small study of five infants with severe generalized JEB with at least one premature truncating pathogenic variant in LAMB3 evaluated the clinical effects of treatment with gentamicin (7.5 mg/kg/day for 3 weeks) on skin fragility and other clinical features. Treatment did not impact overall mortality, but there was decreased skin fragility in four of the five patients; improved perceived quality of life as reported by caregivers, including increased physical activity without blistering; and increased laminin 332 expression in the skin.[263]

Level of evidence: 3c

Bone marrow transplantation has been explored in patients with DEB; however, there is no evidence that this intervention results in a reduction of skin cancer.[264] A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of infusion of nonhematopoietic bone marrow stem cells with or without cyclosporine was conducted in 14 patients with recessive DEB. The rationale for this study was that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the potential to differentiate into dermal fibroblasts, the main expressor of type VII collagen. Seven subjects were randomly assigned to receive MSCs with 5 mg/kg/day of cyclosporine and an additional seven subjects received only MSCs. The number of new blisters and the rate of blister healing were significantly improved in both groups (P = .003 for the number of new blisters in the combination therapy group and P = .004 in the group receiving MSCs only; P < .001 for the rate of blister healing in both groups). However, no difference was seen between the groups.[265]

Level of evidence (MSCs for blister prevention): 1b

Level of evidence (MSCs for blister treatment): 1

Future therapies for epidermolysis bullosa

Researchers are taking advantage of recent technological advances to study new strategies for the treatment of dominant and recessive EB.[266-269] Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated protein 9 (Cas9) is a technology that can be used to edit DNA. One research group used CRISPR/Cas9 to correct an inherited pathogenic variant in COL7A1 in keratinocytes isolated from a patient with RDEB.[266] Keratinocytes that contained the corrected version of COL7A1 were successfully transplanted onto mice and staining of skin grafts after transplant showed normal skin. Another study used a different approach, retrovirus infection, to introduce normal COL7A1 into keratinocytes from four RDEB patients.[268] The corrected keratinocytes were then assembled into epidermal graft sheets and transplanted onto six wound areas of each of the four patients. The grafts were well tolerated and showed greater healing capabilities than did noncorrected skin after further study. A small prospective trial of intravenous gentamicin in pediatric patients with junctional EB showed that patients had increased wound healing and improved quality of life after treatment.[270] All of these therapies are still in early research stages and have not yet been evaluated in randomized, controlled clinical trials.

A randomized controlled trial of 31 patients with DEB compared topical beremagene geperpavec therapy with placebo. Beremagene geperpavec is a herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)–based topical gene therapy that transports the COL7A1 gene to the skin and, in turn, recovers production of collagen VII protein. This therapy resulted in improved wound healing and reduced pain severity during dressing changes.[271]

Level of evidence: 1

Sun exposure

Sun exposure is well established as a major etiologic factor in all forms of skin cancer, although its effects differ by cancer type. The relationship between sun exposure, sunscreen use, and the development of skin cancer is complex. It is complicated by negative confounding (i.e., subjects who are extremely sun sensitive deliberately engage in fewer activities in direct sunlight, and they are more likely to wear sunscreen when they do). These subjects are genetically susceptible to the development of skin cancer by virtue of their cutaneous phenotype and thus may develop skin cancer regardless of the amount of sunlight exposure or the sun protection factor of the sunscreen.[2,3]

Pigmentary characteristics

Pigmentary characteristics are important determinants of melanoma susceptibility. There is an inverse correlation between melanoma risk and skin color that goes from lightest skin to darkest skin. Dark-skinned ethnic groups have a very low risk of melanoma on pigmented skin surfaces; however, individuals in these groups develop melanoma on less-pigmented acral surfaces (palms, soles, nail beds) at the same frequency as light-skinned individuals. Among relatively light-skinned individuals, skin color is modified by genetics and behavior. Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is one of the major genes controlling pigmentation. For more information, see the section on MC1R in the Melanoma section. Other pigmentation genes are under investigation.[4] A relatively new area of investigation is the evaluation of multiple variants together, often referred to as a polygenic risk score (PRS).[5-7] PRSs for cutaneous melanoma contain many genetic variants that impact the expression of genes important in pigment-related phenotypes.[8] The integration of these models with known phenotype risk factors and their overall clinical utility in melanoma risk prediction have not been demonstrated.[9] PRSs for melanoma are not clinically available at this time.

Clinically, several pigmentary characteristics are evaluated to assess the risk of melanoma and other types of skin cancer. These include the following:

Nevi

Nevi (or moles) are sharply circumscribed benign pigmented lesions of the skin or mucosa composed of nest melanocytes. Patients with multiple nevi demonstrate increased risk of melanoma. While there is evidence that both the presence of multiple nevi and the presence of multiple clinically atypical nevi are associated with an increased risk of melanoma, most studies demonstrate a stronger risk of melanoma with the presence of atypical nevi.[11-14] In addition, patients with multiple atypical nevi, regardless of personal and/or family history of melanoma, are at significantly increased risk of developing melanoma than are patients without atypical nevi.[15] A population-based study in the United Kingdom that identified genetic risk factors for the development of nevi showed that some of the same variants are modestly associated with melanoma risk.[16]

The phenotype of multiple nevi has both familial and environmental affecters. The number of nevi can increase with childhood sun exposure.[17,18] The analysis of this association is complex because the use of sun protection strongly correlates with sun exposure. Inheritance of the specific phenotype of a high number of nevi, including clinically atypical nevi, was initially reported as an autosomal dominant trait under the names dysplastic nevus syndrome [19] and familial atypical multiple mole-melanoma syndrome.[20] A portion of this inherited phenotype is attributed to the major melanoma risk gene CDKN2A discussed below. Even within gene carriers in high-risk families, sun exposure seems to affect nevus number.[21]

Family history

Generally, a family history of melanoma appears to increase risk of melanoma by about twofold. A family cancer registry study assessed over 20,000 individuals with melanoma and found a standardized incidence ratio (SIR) of 2.62 for offspring of individuals with melanoma and 2.94 for siblings.[22] A larger study of more than 200,000 individuals from the Nurses’ Health Study, the Nurses’ Health Study 2, and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study found that individuals with a family history of melanoma had an increased risk of melanoma (hazard ratio [HR], 1.74; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.45–2.09).[23] Slightly higher melanoma risks were found in a population-based study of 1,506,961 individuals in Western Australia; first-degree relatives (FDRs) of 5,660 individuals with melanoma showed an HR for melanoma of 3.58 (95% CI, 2.43–5.43).[24] Another population-based study of more than 238,000 FDRs of 23,000 melanoma patients found a lifetime cumulative risk of melanoma of 2.5% to 3%, which is about double the risk of the general population.[25] Risk based on family history is dependent not only on the number of individuals in the family who have a melanoma but also on the number of melanomas in each family member.[25] For example, the familial risk of melanoma was found to increase 2.2-fold (95% CI, 2.2–2.3) with a single FDR who has one melanoma and up to 16.3-fold (95% CI, 9.5–26.1) with a single FDR who has five or more melanomas.[25] When two or more family members were diagnosed with melanoma before age 30 years, the lifetime cumulative risk for the family members rose to 14%.[26]

A study on the heritability of cancer among 80,309 monozygotic and 123,382 dizygotic twins showed that melanoma has a heritability of 58% (95% CI, 43%–73%), suggesting that more than half of the risk of melanoma is caused by inherited factors.[27] A study looking at the contribution of family history to melanoma risk showed a population-attributable fraction ranging from less than 1% in northern Europe to 6.4% in Australia,[28] suggesting that only a small percentage of melanoma cases are caused by familial factors. Rarely, however, in some families many generations and multiple individuals develop melanoma and are at much higher risk. For individuals from these families, the incidence of melanoma is higher for sun-protected rather than sun-exposed skin.[29]

A major hereditary melanoma susceptibility gene, CDKN2A, is altered in approximately 14% to 43% of families with three or more melanoma cases. To date, pathogenic variants have not been identified in more than half of the families with multiple cases of melanoma.[30-33] Multigene panel testing can be considered in families with multiple cases of melanoma. This type of testing can search for pathogenic variants in multiple melanoma genes. However, a large study of extended panel testing (30 genes) in melanoma families without CDKN2A and CDK4 pathogenic variants had a diagnostic yield of 4%.[34] In a large Italian study of multigene panel testing in patients with melanoma, predictors of a pathogenic variant included the following: (1) the presence of pancreatic cancer and melanoma in the same family, and (2) individuals who have had more than three melanomas. When patients were diagnosed with melanoma after age 60 years, they were less likely to have a pathogenic variant in a melanoma gene.[33]

The definition of a familial cluster of melanoma varies by geographical region worldwide, because of the role played by ultraviolet (UV) radiation in melanoma pathogenesis. In heavily insulated regions (regions with high ambient sun exposure), three or more affected family members are required for a familial cluster. In regions with lower levels of ambient sunlight, two or more affected family members are considered sufficient to define a familial cluster. For more information on reasons to consider genetic testing for melanoma, see the Genetic testing section.

Personal history of melanoma

A previous melanoma places one at high risk of developing additional primary melanomas, particularly for people with the most common risk factors for melanoma, such as cutaneous phenotype, family history, a pathogenic variant in CDKN2A, a great deal of early-life sun exposure, and numerous or atypical nevi. In the sporadic setting, approximately 5% of melanoma patients develop more than one primary cancer, while in the familial setting the corresponding estimate is 30%. This greater-than-expected rate of multiple primary cancers of the same organ is a common feature of hereditary cancer susceptibility syndromes; it represents a clinical finding that should raise the level of suspicion that a given patient’s melanoma may be related to an underlying genetic predisposition. Risk of a second primary melanoma after diagnosis of a first primary melanoma is approximately 5% and is greater for males and older patients.[35-38] A study in Sweden of more than 65,000 individuals with melanoma found a SIR of 2.8 (95% CI, 2.3–3.4) for a second melanoma in individuals with a family history of melanoma and a SIR of 2.5 (95% CI, 2.3–2.7) in individuals with no family history.[39] The risk of a second melanoma increased when the first melanoma was diagnosed before age 40 years (SIR, 4.7; 95% CI, 3.9–5.6%). The SIRs increased with increasing numbers of melanomas.

Personal history of BCC or SCC

Having a personal history of basal cell carcinoma (BCC) or squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is also associated with an increase in risk of a subsequent melanoma.[40-42] Depending on the study, this risk ranges from a nonsignificant increase for melanoma with a previous SCC of 1.04 (95% CI, 0.13–8.18) to a highly significant risk of 7.94 (95% CI, 4.11–15.35).[43,44] It is likely that this relationship is the result of shared risk factors (of which sun exposure is presumably one), rather than a specific genetic factor that increases risk of both. Pigmentary characteristics are critically important for the development of melanoma, and cutaneous phenotype (described above), in combination with excessive sun exposure, is associated with an increased risk of all three types of skin cancers.

CDKN2A/p16 and p14/ARF

The major gene associated with melanoma is CDKN2A/p16, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A, which is located on chromosome 9p21. This gene has multiple names (MTS1, INK4, and MLM) and is commonly called by the name of its protein, p16. It is an upstream regulator of the retinoblastoma gene pathway, acting through the cyclin D1/cyclin-dependent kinase 4 complex. This tumor suppressor gene has been intensively studied in multiple-case families and in population-based series of melanoma cases. CDKN2A controls the passage of cells through the cell cycle and provides a mechanism for holding damaged cells at the G1/S checkpoint to permit repair of DNA damage before cellular replication. Loss of function of tumor suppressor genes—a good example of which is CDKN2A—is a critical step in carcinogenesis for many tumor systems.

CDKN2A encodes two proteins, p16INK4a and p14ARF, both inhibitors of cellular senescence. The protein produced when the alternate reading frame (ARF) for exon 1 is transcribed instead of the standard reading frame exerts its biological effects through the p53 pathway. It mediates cell cycle arrest at the G1 and G2/M checkpoints, complementing p16’s block of G1/S progression—thereby facilitating cellular repair of DNA damage.

Pathogenic variants in CDKN2A account for 35% to 40% of familial melanomas [30] and fewer than 1% of unselected melanoma cases.[45] A study of more than 1,000 individuals in Spain showed that 6.6% of individuals with melanoma have a family history of two or more FDRs with melanoma, and up to 15% have a family history suggestive of familial melanoma that includes melanoma or pancreatic cancer diagnoses in FDRs or second-degree relatives (SDRs).[46] A large case series from Britain found that CDKN2A pathogenic variants were present in 100% of families with seven to ten individuals affected with melanoma, 60% to 71% of families with four to six cases, and 14% of families with two cases.[31] A similar study of Greek individuals with melanoma found CDKN2A pathogenic variants in 3.3% of single melanoma cases, 22% of familial melanoma cases, and 57% of individuals with multiple primary melanomas (MPM).[47] A study of 92 sequential cases of Italian individuals with familial atypical multiple mole-melanoma syndrome (defined as three or more individuals with primary cutaneous melanoma or one individual with MPM) found CDKN2A pathogenic variants in 20% of individuals, including three unrelated individuals with a p.D84V variant.[48] Cascade testing identified 14 of 40 unaffected family members undergoing testing who carried their family’s CDKN2A pathogenic variant. However, a second study of 106 familial melanoma cases (defined as at least two melanoma cases) only found CDKN2A pathogenic variants in 8.3% of cases.[49] The frequency of CDKN2A pathogenic variants is as high as 22% in families with two cases of melanoma who have other features of hereditary melanoma, such as an age at diagnosis younger than 50 years or one or more individuals diagnosed with MPM.[50] Many of the pathogenic variants reported among families are founder variants, which are unique to specific populations and geographic areas.[51-58]

A study of 587 individuals with a single primary melanoma or MPM found CDKN2A pathogenic variants in 19% of individuals with MPM relative to 4.4% of individuals with a single primary melanoma.[59] CDKN2A pathogenic variants were found in 29.6% of individuals with three or more primary melanomas. Fifty-eight percent of individuals with more than three primary melanomas and family histories of melanoma (undefined) had a CDKN2A pathogenic variant. A second, smaller study of 46 patients with three or more primary melanomas found CDKN2A pathogenic variants in 24% of participants.[60]

Depending on the study design and target population, melanoma penetrance related to CDKN2A pathogenic variants differs widely. One study of 80 multiple-case families demonstrated that the penetrance varied by country, an observation that was attributed to major differences in sun exposure.[61] For example, in Australia, the penetrance was 30% by age 50 years and 91% by age 80 years; in the United States, the penetrance was 50% by age 50 years and 76% by age 80 years; in Europe, the penetrance was 13% by age 50 years and 58% by age 80 years. In contrast, a comparison of families with the CDKN2A pathogenic variant in the United Kingdom and Australia demonstrated the same cumulative risk of melanoma; for CDKN2A carriers, the risk of developing melanoma seemed independent of ambient UV radiation.[62] Another study of individuals with melanoma identified in eight population-based cancer registries and one hospital-based sample obtained a self-reported family history and sequenced CDKN2A in all individuals. The penetrance was estimated as 14% by age 50 years and 28% by age 80 years.[38] The explanation for these differences lies in the method of identifying the individuals tested, with penetrance estimates increasing with the number of affected family members. The method of family ascertainment in the latter study made it much less likely that “heavily loaded” melanoma families would be identified. Coinheritance of MC1R variants also increases CDKN2A penetrance; this genetic variant, described in further detail below, is therefore both a low-penetrance susceptibility gene and a modifier gene.[63] For more information, see the section on MC1R in the Melanoma section. Other modifier loci have also been assessed in CDKN2A carriers; interleukin-9 (IL9) and GSTT1 were the only loci with effects that reached statistical significance, suggesting that other minor risk factors may interact with major risk loci.[64,65]

One study reported a melanoma incidence rate of 9.9 per 1,000 person years among 354 FDRs and 2.1 per 1,000 person years among 391 SDRs of probands with a p16-Leiden (c.225-243del19) CDKN2A pathogenic variant (95% CIs of 7.4–13.3 and 1.2–3.8, respectively). These data indicate a melanoma rate that is much higher than that of the general population (12.9-fold increased incidence) for SDRs in untested relatives of carriers of CDKN2A pathogenic variants.[66]

A study compared the clinical features of 7,695 individuals with melanoma (182 individuals had a CDKN2A pathogenic variant and 7,513 did not have a CDKN2A pathogenic variant). Results showed that individuals with a CDKN2A pathogenic variant were significantly younger when they were diagnosed with melanoma (mean age at diagnosis for individuals with a CDKN2A pathogenic variant vs. individuals without a CDKN2A pathogenic variant, 39.0 y vs. 54.3 y; P < .001). Individuals with a CDKN2A pathogenic variant also had an increased chance of developing a second melanoma after 5 years when compared with the control group (5-year cumulative incidence rate for CDKN2A carriers, 23%; 5-year cumulative incidence rate for individuals in the control group, 2.3%).[67] A study of pediatric patients with melanoma (ages 9–19 y) in melanoma-prone families also reported a significant increase in melanoma prevalence (6-fold to 28-fold) relative to the general population. In this series, 7 of 21 patients (33%) with CDKN2A pathogenic variants were diagnosed with MPMs before age 20 years.[68] An Italian study performed genotype-phenotype correlations in 100 families with familial melanoma to determine clinical features that are predictive of CDKN2A pathogenic variants. Probands with MPMs, at least one melanoma with a Breslow thickness greater than 0.4 mm, and more than three affected family members had a greater than 90% likelihood of having a CDKN2A pathogenic variant; probands with none of these features had less than a 1% likelihood of having a CDKN2A pathogenic variant. Overall, the presence of MPMs was the most predictive feature in this study.[69]

Carriers of CDKN2A pathogenic variants have melanomas that resemble sporadic melanomas. A large study that compared melanoma pathology between CDKN2A carriers and individuals with sporadic melanoma found few significant differences, with a minor trend of increased pigmentation among pathogenic variant carriers.[70] Another study of more than 670 carriers of CDKN2A pathogenic variants and 1,258 carriers of wild-type or benign CDKN2A variants found that participants with pathogenic variants were more likely to be diagnosed at an earlier age (median age, 38 y vs. 46 y) and have MPM (average number of melanomas, 2.3 vs. 1.4).[71] A small study compared the overall survival (OS) rates of 106 carriers of CDKN2A pathogenic variants and 199 noncarriers who did not have family histories of melanoma. CDKN2A carriers were more likely to have MPMs. However, there was no significant difference in OS or disease-specific survival rates between carriers and noncarriers.[72] However, two pathogenic variants in CDKN2A (p.Arg112dup, p.Pro48Leu) may be prognostic factors in patients with melanoma. After adjusting for age, sex, and tumor classification, carriers of these CDKN2A pathogenic variants had poorer melanoma-specific survival than did non-CDKN2A carriers (HR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.49–2.21).[73] An early study suggested that somatic NRAS variants occurred at a higher rate in melanomas diagnosed in Swedish families who carry CDKN2A pathogenic variants when compared with those who had sporadic melanomas.[74] However, subsequent studies found that the rates of common somatic variants (BRAF, NRAS) were lower in the melanomas of CDKN2A carriers than in the sporadic melanomas found in the control group.[75,76] Several patients with CDKN2A variants had melanomas with coexisting BRAF and NRAS variants. This is an uncommon occurrence in sporadic melanomas.[76] Data from a small series of patients suggests that melanoma patients with CDKN2A pathogenic variants may have improved response rates to immunotherapy when compared with noncarriers; however, further data are needed in this area. [77]

CDKN2A exon 1ß pathogenic variants (p14ARF) have been identified in a small percentage of families negative for p16INK4a pathogenic variants. In a study of 94 Italian families with two or more cases of melanoma, 3.2% of families had variants in p14ARF.[78] A patient with a balanced translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 that disrupted p14ARF had melanoma, DNA repair deficiency, and features of DiGeorge syndrome, including deafness and malformed inner ears.[79]

There are models that can predict whether an individual has a pathogenic variant in CDKN2A.[80,81] However, in the era of widely available and inexpensive multigene (panel) testing, these models are not widely utilized clinically.

CDK4 and CDK6

Cyclin-dependent kinases have important roles in progression of cells from G1 to S phase. CDK4 and CDK6 partner with the cyclin–D associated kinases to accelerate the function of the cell cycle. Phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma (Rb) protein in G1 by cyclin-dependent kinases releases transcription factors, inducing gene expression and metabolic changes that precede DNA replication, thus allowing the cell to progress through the cell cycle. These genes are of conceptual significance because they are in the same signaling pathway as CDKN2A.

Germline CDK4 pathogenic variants are very rare, being found in only a handful of melanoma kindreds.[110-112] All described families demonstrated a substitution of amino acid 24, suggesting this position as a variant hotspot within the CDK4 gene. Three Latvian families with melanoma have a R24H substitution arising on the same haplotype, which suggests that it could be a founder pathogenic variant in this population.[113] A CDK4 pathogenic variant affects binding of p16 with its subsequent inhibition of CDK4 functionality. With constitutive activation of germline CDK4, CDK4 acts as a dominant oncogene. A small study showed that the melanoma cancer risk in 17 families with CDK4 pathogenic variants was similar to the risk seen in families with CDKN2A variants.[114] In addition, the melanomas found in CDK4 families appear to have similar rates of somatic BRAF variants as those found in individuals with melanoma who do not have a germline pathogenic variant in CDK4. However, since CDK4 germline variants are rare, the data are necessarily limited.[115] Despite many similarities, one study of 54 melanomas from 15 CDK4 pathogenic variant carriers, 348 melanomas from 141 CDKN2A pathogenic variant carriers, and 157 melanomas from 104 noncarriers found that tumors in CDK4 carriers were far more likely to arise on nontruncal areas (87% versus 45% in noncarriers [P < .0001] and 62% in CDKN2A carriers).[116] For more information, see the CDKN2A/p16 and p14/ARF section.

Despite its functional similarity to CDK4, germline variants in CDK6 have not been identified in any melanoma kindreds.[117]

Telomere maintenance genes

DNA repair genes

Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) patients with defective DNA repair have a more than 1,000-fold increase in melanoma risk. These patients are diagnosed with melanoma at a significantly younger age than individuals in the general population; on average, melanoma diagnosis occurs at age 22 years in XP patients.[129] The anatomic site distribution of melanomas in XP patients is similar to that of the general population.[130,131]

Genetic polymorphisms associated with DNA repair genes have been associated with mildly increased melanoma risk in the general population.[132] A meta-analysis of eight case-control studies comprising more than 5,000 cases and 7,000 controls found that individuals carrying the Asp1104His polymorphism in XPG had an increased risk of melanoma (OR, 2.42; 95% CI, 2.26–2.60).[133] For more information, see the section on Xeroderma pigmentosum in the Squamous Cell Carcinoma section.

BRCA1-associated protein 1 (BAP1)

BAP1 has recently emerged as a gene implicated both in sporadic and hereditary melanomas.[134] Originally described in a cohort of uveal melanoma patients, BAP1 is a tumor suppressor gene that was found to be inactivated in 84% of uveal melanoma patients with metastases.[135] Although most of these variants were somatic, one patient was found to have a germline frameshift variant. A phenotype associated with BAP1 pathogenic variants was subsequently described.[136] Two families with multiple, elevated melanocytic tumors that were clinically and histopathologically distinct from other melanocytic neoplasms were found to have inactivating germline pathogenic variants of BAP1. These tumors, which have been termed melanocytic BAP1-mutated atypical intradermal tumors, or MBAITs, are found throughout the body, generally measure approximately 5 mm, and begin to appear in the second decade of life. MBAITs are 2 mm to 10 mm in diameter, and affected individuals (about 67% of BAP1 pathogenic variant carriers) can have 5 to more than 50 skin lesions.[136,137] Cases of cutaneous melanoma were present in these families, but the rate of malignant progression is thought to be low due to the relative lack of melanomas in comparison with the number of more papular tumors. This syndrome has been called BAP1 tumor syndrome or the COMMON (cutaneous and ocular melanoma and atypical melanocytic proliferation with other internal neoplasms) syndrome, and it is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern.[138] Further investigation has supported the association between familial cutaneous melanoma and uveal melanoma in BAP1 carriers.[139-143] However, potentially pathogenic BAP1 germline variants occur in a low percentage of melanoma cases. One targeted sequencing study of 1,109 unselected cutaneous melanoma cases found only seven germline missense pathogenic variants (<1%).[45] A second series of 1,977 melanoma cases and 754 controls identified 22 rare variants in BAP1 among cases and 5 rare variants among controls; three of the variants found only among cases were confirmed to disrupt BAP1 function and were associated with family histories of other BAP1-associated cancers.[144] Findings from studies support the link between melanoma risk and BAP1.[134,140,145] In one series, about 18% of individuals with a BAP1 pathogenic variant developed melanoma.[140] Other studies suggest that in BAP1 carriers, cutaneous melanoma has a penetrance of 12% to 23%, with diagnosis occurring at an average age of 39 years (interquartile range, 29–53 y).[134,145] In addition, although data are currently limited, patients with germline pathogenic variants in BAP1 may be at increased risk of lung adenocarcinoma, mesothelioma, BCC, and clear cell carcinoma of the kidney.[137,139,141,142,146,147]

Other studies have reported pathogenic variants in BAP1. A missense BAP1 pathogenic variant (p.Leu570Val) was described in a family with multiple cases of melanoma. This missense variant affected splicing and resulted in a truncated protein. This family also reported cases of uveal melanoma and paraganglioma.[146] Another family with a Y646X BAP1 pathogenic variant reported multiple cancers including multiple cutaneous melanomas, BCCs, uveal melanomas, and mesotheliomas.[148] The authors hypothesized that a genetic-environmental interaction between BAP1 pathogenic variants, UV radiation, and asbestos exposure contributed to the high incidence of cancers in this family.

A Markov simulation study estimated the survival and economic impacts of screening BAP1 pathogenic variant carriers for the four most common cancers associated with BAP1–predisposition syndrome (renal cancer, uveal melanoma, cutaneous melanoma, and mesothelioma). The researchers found that surveillance was cost-effective, costing approximately $1,265 per life-year gained. Survival also improved with BAP1-associated surveillance (50.2% of BAP1-related deaths occurred in the group that did not receive surveillance, whereas only 35.4% of BAP1-related deaths occurred in the group that received surveillance). The study estimated that only 171 deaths out of 10,000 individuals in the screened group were due to cutaneous melanoma, whereas 768 deaths out of 10,000 individuals in the nonscreened group were due to cutaneous melanoma.[149]

For information about screening and surveillance for BAP1 pathogenic variants, see the Screening and surveillance in BAP1 pathogenic variant carriers section.

Additional candidate regions for familial melanoma susceptibility

Several additional loci for familial melanoma have been identified through genome-wide studies. A melanoma susceptibility locus on 1p22 was identified through a linkage analysis of 49 Australian families who had at least three melanoma cases and who were negative for CDKN2A and CDK4 pathogenic variants.[150] Deletion mapping in tumors shows a minimal region of loss of a 9-Mb interval within the peak linkage region, but none of the linkage families have pathogenic variants in the genes tested thus far.[151] A genome-wide association study (GWAS) of individuals from 34 high-risk melanoma families revealed three single nucleotide variants (SNVs) on 10q25.1 associated with melanoma risk.[152] The ORs for risk for the SNVs ranged from 6.8 to 8.4. Subsequent parametric linkage analysis in one family showed logarithm of the odd scores of 1.5, whereas the other two families assessed did not show linkage. No obvious candidate gene was identified in the genomic region of interest. Two genome-wide linkage studies of 35 and 42 Swedish families identified evidence of linkage on chromosomal regions 3q29, 17p11-12, and 18q22.[153,154] An Italian linkage study showed a suggestive linkage to the same 3q29 locus.[155] No causative genes have been confirmed, but candidates map to all of the loci. None of these loci have been confirmed in independent studies.

Several GWAS have suggested that a risk locus for melanoma may exist on chromosome 20q11 (OR, 1.27).[156,157] This is the location of the ASIP locus that encodes the agouti signaling protein, which controls hair color during the hair growth cycle in some mammals. It acts as an antagonist to MC1R. While ASIP variation has been associated with differences in human pigmentation,[158] initial studies did not find an association between ASIP variants and melanoma.[159] However, other studies have shown that the ASIP rs56238684 variant is associated with MPM risk (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.7–3.3).[160] Additionally, variants in an ASIP transcription factor, NCOA6 (which is also on chromosome 20), had a maximum OR of 1.82 for melanoma risk.[157] However, no interactions were seen between NCOA6 variants, MC1R variants, and melanoma risk. The mechanism by which variants at 20q11 cause increased melanoma risk remains unclear.

Other risk loci have been reported on chromosomes 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, and 22.[155,161-166] A GWAS of melanoma published in 2014 examined eight of the loci with a previous significant association with melanoma, but without a confirmed causal gene.[165] Researchers were able to confirm seven of eight loci and found some evidence supporting the eighth. These included the chromosome 20 locus discussed above and a 9p21 locus distinct from CDKN2A. Candidate genes at these loci seem to be clustered in functional groups associated with skin pigmentation and nevus development, both traits with a known melanoma association.[167] For more information about these traits, see the Risk Factors for Melanoma section. A multicenter meta-analysis of 11 GWAS and two data sets included 15,990 cutaneous melanoma cases and 26,409 controls. They reported five melanoma susceptibility loci that involved putative melanocyte regulatory elements, telomere biology, and DNA repair.[166]

A publicly available database, MelGene, maintains lists of variants that have been associated with melanoma risk through GWAS. MelGene also includes network and potential functional relationships between these genes and variants.[168]

9q21 and GOLM1

When the first data linking CDKN2A pathogenic variants to melanoma risk became available, it was clear that these variants did not account for all the melanoma tumors in which 9p21 loss of heterozygosity could be demonstrated. In fact, 51% of informative cases had deletions that did not involve somatic variants in CDKN2A.[169] There are data that the Golgi membrane protein 1 (GOLM1) gene, mapping to 9q21, may be involved in melanoma risk. Exome sequencing of DNA from 12 sets of cousins with cutaneous melanoma who were negative for known high-risk melanoma genes led to the identification of a rare GOLM1 variant (rs149739829) in three affected individuals in one pedigree.[170] Two additional pairs of related melanoma cases with the putative risk allele were identified. Family-based case-control studies showed association with melanoma risk (OR, 9.81; P < .001). In a population-based case-control study of 1,534 melanoma cases, unselected for family history, and 1,146 controls, there was an increased risk of melanoma in individuals that carried the GOLM1 rs149739829 risk allele (OR, 2.45; P = .02).[170]

MC1R

The MC1R gene, otherwise known as the alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor, is located on chromosome 8. Partial loss-of-function pathogenic variants, of which there are at least ten, are associated not only with red hair, fair skin, and poor tanning, but also with increased skin cancer risk independent of cutaneous pigmentation.[171-174] A comprehensive meta-analysis of more than 8,000 cases and 50,000 controls showed the highest risk of melanoma in individuals with MC1R variants associated with red hair; however, alleles not associated with red hair have also been linked to increased melanoma risk.[175] Additional phenotypic associations have been found. In different studies, MC1R variants were found to be associated with lentigo maligna melanoma (OR, 2.16; 95% CI, 1.07–4.37; P = .044) [176] and increased risk of melanoma for individuals with no red hair, no freckles, and Fitzpatrick type III or IV skin (summary OR, 3.14; 95% CI, 2.06–4.80).[177] Pooled studies of 5,160 cases and 12,119 controls from 17 sites calculated that melanoma risk attributable to MC1R variants is 28%, suggesting that these variants may be an important contributor to melanoma risk in the general population.[177] In addition, individuals with MPMs have a high likelihood of carrying an MC1R pathogenic variant. In one study of 46 individuals with 3 or more primary melanomas, 43 individuals (93%) had an MC1R pathogenic variant.[60]

A scoring system has been proposed for MC1R polymorphisms to identify associations between the degree of functional impairments in the melanogenesis pathway, clinical characteristics of patients, and melanoma presentations. The initial classification system designated MC1R variants that were strongly associated with red hair and fair skin as strong (R) variants (OR, 63.3; 95% CI, 31.9–139.6) and MC1R variants that were weakly associated with red hair and fair skin as weak (r) variants (OR, 5.1; 95% CI, 2.5–11.3).[178] This work was expanded to evaluate additional MC1R variants, which were scored as follows: a consensus sequence allele was given a value of zero, an r allele was given a value of one, and an R allele was given a value of two. The summary score could range from zero to four.[179] A study of 1,044 melanoma patients showed that individuals with a score of three or more were more likely to develop melanoma before age 50 years (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.01–2.14).[180] The MC1R score has been subsequently found to have implications for a survival benefit in melanoma patients. At least three studies have found a lower risk of death in melanoma patients without consensus MC1R alleles (HR, 0.78; 95% CI, 0.65–0.94) when compared with those with at least one MC1R consensus allele (HR, 0.57–0.78).[179,181,182] However, the survival benefits associated with MC1R R alleles may only pertain to women.[182]

MC1R variants are associated with an increased risk of all three types of skin cancer. However, adding MC1R genotype information to skin cancer risk predictions (which are based on age, sex, and cutaneous melanin density), only slightly improved them.[183,184] In contrast, one study that examined predictors of early-onset melanoma in both population- and family-based studies showed that adding MC1R genotypes improved the area under the receiver operator curve (AUC) by 6% when compared with demographic information alone (P < .001). When MC1R genotypes were combined with an individual's nevi count and history of keratinocyte carcinoma (BCC or SCC), the AUC was 0.78 (95% CI, 0.75–0.82) for self-reported nevi and 0.83 (95% CI, 0.80–0.86) for physician-described nevi.[185]

Several studies have tried to quantify the increased melanoma incidence seen in individuals with MC1R variants. An Australian study of 1,267 individuals found that those with an MC1R R/R genotype and greater than 20 nevi had a 25-fold increased risk of melanoma when compared with those who had a wildtype MC1R variant and had 0 to 4 nevi. Absolute melanoma risk (to age 75 years) was 23.3% in men with MC1R R/R genotypes and more than 20 nevi. Similarly, absolute melanoma risk (to age 75 years) was 19.3% in women with MC1R R/R genotypes and more than 20 nevi.[186] A study of 233 young individuals with melanoma, 932 adults with melanoma, and 932 controls found that MC1R r variants were more common in young melanoma cases (≤20 years) when compared with adult patients aged 35 years and older (OR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.02–2.33). The association was more pronounced in individuals aged 18 years and younger (OR, 1.80; 95% CI, 1.06–3.07).[187]

A study of 1,791 individuals assessed if MC1R variants affect melanoma risk differently in men and women. Carrying two or more MC1R variants was associated with an increased risk in both women (OR, 2.65; 95% CI, 1.86–3.79; P = .001) and men (OR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.14–2.38; P = .007). In a multivariate analysis (which included other risk factors like freckling, wrinkling, sunburns, and solar lentigines), the association between melanoma risk and MC1R variants was significant in women but not in men.[188] A study in 203 individuals without skin cancer found that the MC1R r variant (p.Val60Leu) was associated with a high nevus count in women (>50 nevi; P < .001) but not in men. However, the number of individuals in the high-risk group was small.[189]

MC1R variants can also modify melanoma risk in individuals with CDKN2A pathogenic variants. A study consisting of 815 carriers of CDKN2A pathogenic variants looked at four common non-synonymous MC1R variants and found that having one variant increased the melanoma risk twofold, but having two or more variants increased melanoma risk nearly sixfold.[190] After stratification for hair color, the increased risk of melanoma appeared to be limited to subjects with brown or black hair. These data suggest that MC1R variants increase melanoma risk in a manner independent of their effect on pigmentation. A meta-analysis of individuals with CDKN2A pathogenic variants showed that those with greater than one variant in MC1R had approximately fourfold increased risk of melanoma. Individuals with one or more variants in MC1R showed an average 10-year decrease in age of onset from 47 to 37 years.[191] In contrast, a large consortium study did not show as large a decrease in age at onset of melanoma.[190] Another study of Norwegian melanoma cases and controls showed that carriers of CDKN2A pathogenic variants had an increased risk of melanoma when they carried either the Arg160Trp or Asp84Glu MC1R variants (R alleles).[192]

In addition to studies evaluating the relationship between germline variants and MC1R variants, multiple groups have assessed whether MC1R variants are associated with somatic BRAF variants. Studies indicate that there may be an association between MC1R variants and BRAF V600E somatic variants.[193-196] However, it is difficult to determine the impact of pigmentary influences on BRAF somatic variants versus genetic effects.

Other pigmentary genes

Pathogenic variants in albinism genes may also account for a small proportion of familial melanoma. For example, variants in TYRP1, TYR, and OCA2 were observed at an increased frequency in one study of individuals with familial cutaneous melanoma compared with population controls.[197] Further studies are needed to confirm these findings. For more information about pigmentary genes that can increase melanoma risk, see the Oculocutaneous albinism section.

MITF

Whole-genome sequencing led to the identification of the E318K variant in the microphthalmia–associated transcription factor (MITF) gene in a family with seven cases of melanoma.[198] MITF is a transcription factor that regulates multiple genes that are pertinent to melanocyte function. The MITF E318K variant impairs normal SUMOylation of MITF. Individuals with the MITF E318K variant are more likely to have fair skin, high nevus counts, high freckling scores, and dark hair.[199,200] Individuals with the MITF E318K variant are also more likely to develop clinically amelanotic melanomas, melanomas with nodular subtypes, and multiple primary melanomas.[160,199-201] The MITF E318K variant is considered a moderate-risk melanoma allele, as demonstrated by a meta-analysis of nine published studies with data from 331 patients (OR, 2.37; 95% CI,1.89–2.97).[202] Although earlier studies suggested an association between MITF pathogenic variants and increased renal cell carcinoma risk, larger studies have not supported this association.[202,203]

BRCA1 and BRCA2

The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium found that pathogenic variants in BRCA2 were associated with increased melanoma risk (RR, 2.58; 95% CI, 1.3–5.2).[204] A second study reported that BRCA2 pathogenic variant carriers had a similar increase in melanoma risk, although the result fell short of statistical significance.[205] In contrast, a large cohort study in the Netherlands showed that BRCA2 pathogenic variant carriers did not have increased melanoma risk; however, the expected incidence of melanoma was rare in this population, and this result reflects a difference of only two melanoma cases.[206] Ashkenazi Jewish patients with melanoma do not have increased prevalence of the three common pathogenic founder variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2.[207] It is unclear if BRCA1 and BRCA2 pathogenic variants increase melanoma risk based on the current evidence.[208,209] For more information about the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, see BRCA1 and BRCA2: Cancer Risks and Management.

CHEK2

Studies have evaluated if other cancer susceptibility genes can increase an individual's risk of developing melanoma. A review of six mostly small retrospective studies of CHEK2, a gene that moderately increases risk for breast cancer and other cancers, did not show a consistent association with increased melanoma risk.[210] The largest of these studies evaluated the CHEK2 c.1100delC pathogenic variant in Danish and German patients. This study included 1,905 melanoma cases and 12,860 controls. Data showed that individuals with the CHEK2 c.1100delC pathogenic variant had an increased risk of developing melanoma (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.02–3.17). The researchers followed up with a meta-analysis of 2,619 cases and 17,481 controls. Similarly, CHEK2 c.1100delC pathogenic variant carriers had an increased risk of developing melanoma (OR, 1.81; 95% CI, 1.07–3.05).[211] The other five studies did not find differences in CHEK2 pathogenic variant frequencies between cases and controls, had too few melanoma cases to make conclusions, and/or did not evaluate the CHEK2 c.1100delC pathogenic variant separately.[210] For more information, see the CHEK2 section in Genetics of Breast and Gynecologic Cancers and the CHEK2 section in Genetics of Colorectal Cancer.

TP53 (Li-Fraumeni syndrome)

Longitudinal and retrospective studies of skin cancer in individuals with Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS) found a cumulative risk of 36.3% to 44.6% for any type of skin cancer by age 70 years.[212,213] Melanoma risk was approximately sevenfold-fold higher in individuals with LFS than in individuals in the general population, with a 12.6% cumulative risk of melanoma by age 70 years (95% CI, 3.6%–38.4%). In about 40% of individuals with LFS and melanoma, melanoma was their first cancer, with a median diagnosis occurring at age 42 years (range, 21–68 y). Cumulative risk of BCC was 6.7% by age 40 years and 34.6% by age 70 years (95% CI, 15.4–66.2%). SCC incidence was similar to that seen in the general population. For more information, see the Li-Fraumeni Syndrome section in Genetics of Breast and Gynecologic Cancers.

ATM

Ataxia telangiectasia (AT) is an autosomal recessive genetic condition caused by pathogenic variants in the ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) gene. The ATM protein is a kinase similar to phosphoinositide 3-kinases and is responsible for regulating the growth of new cells.[214] Patients with AT may demonstrate a broad range of phenotypes, based on whether the ATM pathogenic variant is one of the following: 1) a truncating variant resulting in the absence of ATM protein activity, or 2) a variant resulting in some residual ATM protein activity and functionality.[215] Most patients with AT present with varying degrees of movement disorder (i.e., tremor, ataxia), immunodeficiency, and sensitivity to ionizing/UV radiation (due to challenges with repairing DNA double-stranded breaks).[214] Thirty five percent of patients with this condition will develop cancer before age 20 years. Acute leukemias and lymphomas are the most common malignancies seen in children with AT.

A large cohort study investigated cancer risks in ATM carriers (individuals who had one pathogenic variant in ATM). These individuals had a low-to-moderate risk of developing melanoma (OR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.18–1.81).[216]

Approximately 0.5% of the general population carry ATM pathogenic variants.[214] For more information about cancer risks and management for ATM carriers, see the ATM section in Genetics of Breast and Gynecologic Cancers.

PTEN hamartoma tumor syndromes (including Cowden syndrome)

Cowden syndrome and Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba syndrome (BRRS) are part of a spectrum of conditions known collectively as PTEN hamartoma tumor syndromes (PHTS). The term PHTS refers to any patient with a PTEN pathogenic variant, irrespective of clinical presentation.[217] PTEN functions as a dual-specificity phosphatase that removes phosphate groups from tyrosine, serine, and threonine. Operational criteria for the diagnosis of Cowden syndrome have been published and subsequently updated.[218,219] These include major, minor, and pathognomonic criteria, which consist of certain mucocutaneous manifestations such as trichilemmoma and adult-onset dysplastic gangliocytoma of the cerebellum (Lhermitte-Duclos disease). An updated set of criteria based on a systematic literature review has been suggested [220] and is currently used in the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines.[221] For more information about PTEN hamartoma tumor syndromes (including Cowden syndrome), see Genetics of Colorectal Cancer and Genetics of Breast and Gynecologic Cancers.

The risk of melanoma in PTEN carriers is controversial. In an International Cowden Consortium (ICC) study of 100 patients, four women and four men were diagnosed with melanoma when less than one case of melanoma was expected; results showed a SIR of 28.3 for women (95% CI, 7.6–35.4) and 39.4 for men (95% CI, 10.6–100.9) (P < .001).[222] In this ICC study, an elevated SIR of 8.5 (95% CI, 4.1–15.6) was reported in 368 PTEN pathogenic variant carriers.[223] In this cohort, the estimated lifetime risk of melanoma in PTEN pathogenic variant carriers was 6% (range, 1.6%–9.4%). Notably, a subsequent prospective study did not observe an elevated melanoma risk in the same population.[224] In this study, only 1 of 180 carriers was diagnosed with melanoma.

Genetic testing

Clinical testing is available to identify germline pathogenic variants in genes associated with hereditary melanoma such as MC1R, BAP1, BRCA2, CDK4, CDKN2A, MITF, TERT, and POT1. Multiple testing laboratories in the United States and overseas offer sequence analysis of the entire coding regions of these genes as well as deletion and duplication analysis. Unless there is a known pathogenic variant in a family, panel testing of multiple genes, rather than single gene sequencing, is often done. NCCN suggests considering genetic counseling and testing for CDKN2A if an individual has a personal or family history of either of the following: 1) three or more invasive cutaneous melanomas or 2) a combination of invasive melanoma, pancreatic cancer, and/or astrocytoma. Multigene (panel) testing may also be warranted when an individual has a family history of melanoma, and other cancers, including the following: uveal melanoma, astrocytoma, mesothelioma, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, and/or renal cancer.[230] Experts suggest that genetic testing be performed after genetic counseling is provided by a qualified genetics professional who is knowledgeable about hereditary skin cancer syndromes.

High-risk population

General population

Prevention, screening, and treatment interventions for melanoma in the general population (i.e., those who do not have a genetic predisposition to developing melanoma) are addressed in the following PDQ summaries:

Muir-Torre syndrome and Lynch syndrome

Cutaneous sebaceous neoplasms may be associated with Muir-Torre syndrome (MTS). Multiple types of sebaceous tumors, including sebaceous adenomas, epitheliomas, carcinomas, keratoacanthomas, and BCCs with sebaceous differentiation, have been described in MTS. MTS, a variant of Lynch syndrome/hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome, involves the synchronous or metachronous development of at least one cutaneous sebaceous neoplasm and at least one visceral malignancy. The visceral malignancies may be of gastrointestinal (colorectal, stomach, small bowel, liver, and bile duct) and/or genitourinary (endometrial and bladder) origin. These malignancies typically demonstrate a less aggressive phenotype than equivalent non-MTS–related tumors.[9,10] MTS is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion and has both high penetrance and variable expressivity. A meta-analysis showed that MTS is associated with pathogenic variants in the mismatch repair genes in the following frequencies: MLH1 (15%), MSH2 (62%), MSH6 (8%), and PMS2 (1%).[11-17] In a study of 36 sebaceous lesions that included sebaceous carcinomas, sebaceous adenomas, and sebaceomas, 38.9% of lesions were missing one or more mismatch repair proteins on immunohistochemistry (IHC).[18] Of the ten individuals with absent staining of one or more mismatch repair proteins, five had genetic testing that confirmed a diagnosis of Lynch syndrome. In 220 individuals with a confirmed Lynch syndrome diagnosis (via genetic testing), 95% of IHC and 90% of microsatellite instability tests in 328 skin lesions were consistent with the pathogenic variant.[17] For more information, see the IHC section in Genetics of Colorectal Cancer. These results suggest that routine screening of sebaceous lesions by IHC may be useful for identifying individuals with Lynch syndrome. An independent study stained 173 cutaneous sebaceous lesions for Lynch syndrome proteins (via IHC) in patients who were not known to have a Lynch syndrome diagnosis.[19] Fifty-three percent (92/173) of these cutaneous sebaceous lesions had abnormal IHC results. Forty-seven of 101 patients were referred to and completed genetic testing. Fifteen percent of these individuals had a pathogenic variant in a Lynch syndrome–related gene (most frequently MSH2). For more information, see the Lynch Syndrome section in Genetics of Colorectal Cancer.

While commonly noted sebaceous hyperplasia has not been associated with MTS, any sebaceous lesion with atypical or difficult-to-classify histological features warrants prompt exploration of the patient's personal history and family history. Special consideration is warranted when referring patients with sebaceous neoplasms to medical geneticists or gastroenterologists for Lynch syndrome evaluations. While most patients with MTS are diagnosed with a visceral malignancy before developing cutaneous sebaceous neoplasms, 22% of patients develop cutaneous sebaceous neoplasms first. This situation provides the opportunity to screen for visceral malignancies.[20] Diagnosis of MTS is based on clinical criteria, but it may be supported by IHC staining for MSH2, MLH1, and MSH6, which can serve as a screening mechanism before molecular genetic analysis.[12,14-16,21] It is recommended that patients and family members with suspected MTS pursue genetic counseling/testing and appropriate visceral malignancy screening regimens.

Level of evidence: 3

Lynch syndrome and other skin cancer risks

Multiple studies suggest that individuals with Lynch syndrome have an increased risk of developing cutaneous neoplasias. A study of 607 individuals with Lynch syndrome (median age of genetic testing, 50 y) found that 21% had a skin neoplasm, nearly one-third of whom had more than one histological type.[22] BCCs were the most commonly diagnosed skin neoplasia in these individuals (9% of patients). Sebaceous adenomas and squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) were the next most frequently diagnosed skin neoplasias and were found in 7.2% and 5.8% of patients, respectively. Other skin neoplasias observed in these individuals included melanoma, sebaceous carcinoma, sebaceous epitheliomas/sebaceoma, keratoacanthoma, and Merkel cell carcinoma. These skin findings were found more frequently in males (odds ratio [OR], 2.44), older individuals, White individuals, and carriers of MLH1 or MSH2/EPCAM pathogenic variants. A weakness of this study was researchers not evaluating these skin lesions for mismatch repair deficiency, because skin cancers are commonly found in the general population. A study analyzing skin cancer incidence in patients with Lynch syndrome suggested that there was an increase in sebaceous carcinomas and SCCs.[23] Additional studies are needed to determine if pathogenic variants in the Lynch syndrome genes cause SCC.[17]

Testing in children

A systematic review described three studies that examined participants' attitudes towards performing hereditary melanoma genetic testing in minors.[6] Most participants were in favor of testing minors for familial melanoma risk. Many participants who supported testing minors believed that genetic testing could raise awareness about melanoma risk and promote sun-protective behaviors.

Intervention studies

A few intervention studies have targeted knowledge about melanoma, sun protection, and screening in family members of melanoma patients. In one study among siblings, participants drawn from a clinic population were randomly assigned to an intervention that included telephone messages and tailored print materials about risk reduction and screening recommendations. The usual care group received a standard physician-practice recommendation that patients notify family members about their diagnosis. The intervention group showed improvements in knowledge about melanoma, confidence in seeing a dermatologist and having a screening examination, and greater improvements in skin self-examination practices compared with control participants after 12 months; both groups showed twofold increases in physician examinations after 12 months; there was no change in sunscreen behaviors in either group.[21]

In another study, 443 family members of melanoma patients were randomly assigned to either a generic or tailored intervention that consisted of three (untailored or tailored) print mailings and one (untailored or tailored) telephone counseling session. Overall, the tailored intervention group showed an almost twofold increase in frequency of total cutaneous skin examinations by a health care provider compared with the generic intervention. However, no differences were observed for skin self-examinations between intervention arms. In contrast to the previous study, which did not show improvements in sun protection habits,[21] participants in this study who received the tailored intervention were significantly more likely to report improvements in sun protection habits than were those who received the generic intervention.[22]