Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
. 2018 Dec 31;59(2):177-194.
doi: 10.1093/ilar/ily021.

Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction in Animal Studies With Biohazardous Agents

Lon V Kendall  1 , James R Owiny  2 , Erik D Dohm  3 , Katie J Knapek  4 , Erin S Lee  5 , Jennifer H Kopanke  6 , Michael Fink  7 , Sarah A Hansen  8 , Jessica D Ayers  2
Affiliations

Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction in Animal Studies With Biohazardous Agents

Lon V Kendall et al. ILAR J. .

Abstract

Animal models are critical to the advancement of our knowledge of infectious disease pathogenesis, diagnostics, therapeutics, and prevention strategies. The use of animal models requires thoughtful consideration for their well-being, as infections can significantly impact the general health of an animal and impair their welfare. Application of the 3Rs-replacement, refinement, and reduction-to animal models using biohazardous agents can improve the scientific merit and animal welfare. Replacement of animal models can use in vitro techniques such as cell culture systems, mathematical models, and engineered tissues or invertebrate animal hosts such as amoeba, worms, fruit flies, and cockroaches. Refinements can use a variety of techniques to more closely monitor the course of disease. These include the use of biomarkers, body temperature, behavioral observations, and clinical scoring systems. Reduction is possible using advanced technologies such as in vivo telemetry and imaging, allowing longitudinal assessment of animals during the course of disease. While there is no single method to universally replace, refine, or reduce animal models, the alternatives and techniques discussed are broadly applicable and they should be considered when infectious disease animal models are developed.

Keywords: alternatives; ethogram; humane end points; imaging; in vitro; infectious disease; reduction; refinement; replacement; score sheet; telemetry; temperature.

PubMed Disclaimer

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

Publication types

Substances

LinkOut - more resources