Skip to main page content
U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

Dot gov

The .gov means it’s official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

Https

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Access keys NCBI Homepage MyNCBI Homepage Main Content Main Navigation
Review
. 2014 Jul 29;2014(7):CD003363.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003363.pub3.

Structural and community-level interventions for increasing condom use to prevent the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections

Ralfh Moreno  1 , Herfina Y Nababan, Erika Ota, Windy M V Wariki, Satoshi Ezoe, Stuart Gilmour, Kenji Shibuya
Affiliations
Review

Structural and community-level interventions for increasing condom use to prevent the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections

Ralfh Moreno et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Community interventions to promote condom use are considered to be a valuable tool to reduce the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). In particular, special emphasis has been placed on implementing such interventions through structural changes, a concept that implies public health actions that aim to improve society's health through modifications in the context wherein health-related risk behavior takes place. This strategy attempts to increase condom use and in turn lower the transmission of HIV and other STIs.

Objectives: To assess the effects of structural and community-level interventions for increasing condom use in both general and high-risk populations to reduce the incidence of HIV and STI transmission by comparing alternative strategies, or by assessing the effects of a strategy compared with a control.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library, from 2007, Issue 1), as well as MEDLINE, EMBASE, AEGIS and ClinicalTrials.gov, from January 1980 to April 2014. We also handsearched proceedings of international acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) conferences, as well as major behavioral studies conferences focusing on HIV/AIDS and STIs.

Selection criteria: Randomized control trials (RCTs) featuring all of the following.1. Community interventions ('community' defined as a geographical entity, such as cities, counties, villages).2. One or more structural interventions whose objective was to promote condom use. These type of interventions can be defined as those actions improving accessibility, availability and acceptability of any given health program/technology.3. Trials that confirmed biological outcomes using laboratory testing.

Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently screened and selected relevant studies, and conducted further risk of bias assessment. We assessed the effect of treatment by pooling trials with comparable characteristics and quantified its effect size using risk ratio. The effect of clustering at the community level was addressed through intra-cluster correlation coefficients (ICCs), and sensitivity analysis was carried out with different design effect values.

Main results: We included nine trials (plus one study that was a subanalysis) for quantitative assessment. The studies were conducted in Tanzania, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya, Peru, China, India and Russia, comprising 75,891 participants, mostly including the general population (not the high-risk population). The main intervention was condom promotion, or distribution, or both. In general, control groups did not receive any active intervention. The main risk of bias was incomplete outcome data.In the meta-analysis, there was no clear evidence that the intervention had an effect on either HIV seroprevalence or HIV seroincidence when compared to controls: HIV incidence (risk ratio (RR) 0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.69 to 1.19) and HIV prevalence (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.79 to 1.32). The estimated effect of the intervention on other outcomes was similarly uncertain: Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) incidence (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.55 to 1.04); HSV-2 prevalence (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.85 to 1.20); syphilis prevalence (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.17); gonorrhoea prevalence (RR 1.16, 95% CI 0.67 to 2.02); chlamydia prevalence (RR 0.94, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.18); and trichomonas prevalence (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.30). Reported condom use increased in the experimental arm (RR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.40). In the intervention groups, the number of people reporting two or more sexual partners in the past year did not show a clear decrease when compared with control groups (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.04), but knowledge about HIV and other STIs improved (RR 1.15, 95% CI 1.04 to 1.28, and RR 1.23, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.41, respectively). The quality of the evidence was deemed to be moderate for nearly all key outcomes.

Authors' conclusions: There is no clear evidence that structural interventions at the community level to increase condom use prevent the transmission of HIV and other STIs. However, this conclusion should be interpreted with caution since our results have wide confidence intervals and the results for prevalence may be affected by attrition bias. In addition, it was not possible to find RCTs in which extended changes to policies were conducted and the results only apply to general populations in developing nations, particularly to Sub-Saharan Africa, a region which in turn is widely diverse.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

Ralfh Moreno declared not having any conflict of interest.

Herfina Nababan declared not having any conflict of interest.

Erika Ota declared not having any conflict of interest.

Windy Wariki declared not having any conflict of interest.

Satoshi Ezoe declared not having any conflict of interest.

Stuart Gilmour declared not having any conflict of interest.

Kenji Shibuya declared not having any conflict of interest.

Figures

1
1
ICC Linear Regression Model.
2
2
Study flow diagram.
3
3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
4
4
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
5
5
Funnel plot of comparison: Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care. Outcome: 1.7 Gonorrhoea prevalence.
6
6
Funnel plot of comparison: Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care. Outcome: 1.8 Chlamydia prevalence.
7
7
Funnel plot of comparison: Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care. Outcome: 1.14 Two or more sexual partners in last year.
8
8
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: HIV incidence.
9
9
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: HIV prevalence.
10
10
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: HSV‐2 incidence.
11
11
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: HSV‐2 prevalence.
12
12
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Syphilis prevalence.
13
13
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Gonorrhea prevalence.
14
14
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Chlamydia prevalence.
15
15
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Trichomonas prevalence.
16
16
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Two or more sexual partners in last year.
17
17
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Condom use at last sexual intercourse.
18
18
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Knowledge, condoms can prevent HIV.
19
19
Sensitivity analysis ICCs; outcome: Knowledge, condoms can prevent STIs.
1.1
1.1. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 1 HIV incidence (person/years).
1.2
1.2. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 2 HIV prevalence.
1.3
1.3. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 3 HSV‐2 incidence (person/years).
1.4
1.4. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 4 HSV‐2 prevalence.
1.5
1.5. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 5 Syphilis incidence, 1:8 dilutions (person/years).
1.6
1.6. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 6 Syphilis prevalence (1:8 dilutions).
1.7
1.7. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 7 Gonorrhoea prevalence.
1.8
1.8. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 8 Chlamydia prevalence.
1.9
1.9. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 9 Trichomona prevalence (only in women).
1.10
1.10. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 10 Trichomona prevalence (both sexes).
1.11
1.11. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 11 Composite score 1: HIV, HSV‐2, syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomonas (in women).
1.12
1.12. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 12 Composite score 2: HIV, syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomonas.
1.13
1.13. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 13 Composite score 3: gonorrhea, chlamydia and trichomonas (all results assessed in women).
1.14
1.14. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 14 Two or more sexual partners in last year.
1.15
1.15. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 15 Use of condom during last sexual intercourse.
1.16
1.16. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 16 Use of condom during last sexual intercourse with non‐regular partner.
1.17
1.17. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 17 Unprotected sex with regular partner in past three years.
1.18
1.18. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 18 Correct condom use at last sexual intercourse at 12 months.
1.19
1.19. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 19 Correct condom use at last sexual intercourse 24 months.
1.20
1.20. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 20 Consistent condom use at 6 months.
1.21
1.21. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 21 Consistent condom use at 12 months.
1.22
1.22. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 22 Knowledge: Condom can prevent HIV.
1.23
1.23. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 23 Knowledge: Condom can prevent STIs.
1.24
1.24. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 24 Condom self efficacy.
1.25
1.25. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 25 HIV self efficacy.
1.26
1.26. Analysis
Comparison 1 Interventions to increase condom use versus standard care, Outcome 26 Self efficacy.
2.1
2.1. Analysis
Comparison 2 Stratified analysis: Condom promotion along with free massive condom distribution, Outcome 1 HIV incidence (person/years).
2.2
2.2. Analysis
Comparison 2 Stratified analysis: Condom promotion along with free massive condom distribution, Outcome 2 HIV prevalence.
2.3
2.3. Analysis
Comparison 2 Stratified analysis: Condom promotion along with free massive condom distribution, Outcome 3 HSV‐2 prevalence.
2.4
2.4. Analysis
Comparison 2 Stratified analysis: Condom promotion along with free massive condom distribution, Outcome 4 Syphilis prevalence (1:8 dilutions).
2.5
2.5. Analysis
Comparison 2 Stratified analysis: Condom promotion along with free massive condom distribution, Outcome 5 Gonorrhoea prevalence.
2.6
2.6. Analysis
Comparison 2 Stratified analysis: Condom promotion along with free massive condom distribution, Outcome 6 Chlamydia prevalence.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

Update of

  • doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003363.pub2

Similar articles

See all similar articles

Cited by

See all "Cited by" articles

References

References to studies included in this review

Cowan 2010 {published data only}
    1. Cowan FM, Pascoe SJ, Langhaug LF, Mavhu W, Chidiya S, Jaffar S, et al. The Regai Dzive Shiri project: results of a randomized trial of an HIV prevention intervention for youth. AIDS 2010;24(16):2541‐52. [1473‐5571: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Doyle 2010 {published data only}
    1. Doyle AM, Ross DA, Maganja K, Baisley K, Masesa C, Andreasen A, et al. Vijana Trial Study Group. Long‐term biological and behavioural impact of an adolescent sexual health intervention in Tanzania: follow‐up survey of the community‐based MEMA kwa Vijana Trial. PLoS Medicine 2010;7(6):e1000287. - PMC - PubMed
Feldblum 2001 {published data only}
    1. Feldblum PJ, Kuyoh MA, Bwayo JJ, Omari M, Wong EL, Tweedy KG, et al. Female condom introduction and sexually transmitted infection prevalence: results of a community intervention trial in Kenya. AIDS 2001;15(8):1037‐44. [0269‐9370: (Print)] - PubMed
    1. Welsh MJ, Feldblum PJ, Kuyoh MA, Mwarogo P, Kungu D. Condom use during a community intervention trial in Kenya. International Journal of STD & AIDS 2001;12(7):469‐74. - PubMed
Garcia 2012 {published data only}
    1. Garcia PJ, Holmes KK, Carcamo CP, Garnett GP, Hughes JP, Campos PE, et al. Prevention of sexually transmitted infections in urban communities (Peru PREVEN): a multicomponent community‐randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2012;379(9821):1120‐8. [1474‐547X: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Gregson 2007 {published data only}
    1. Gregson S, Adamson S, Papaya S, Mundondo J, Nyamukapa CA, Mason PR, et al. Impact and process evaluation of integrated community and clinic‐based HIV‐1 control: a cluster‐randomised trial in eastern Zimbabwe. PLoS Medicine 2007;4(3):e102. [1549‐1676: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Jewkes 2008 {published data only}
    1. Jewkes R, Nduna M, Levin J, Jama N, Dunkle K, Puren A, et al. Impact of Stepping Stones on incidence of HIV and HSV‐2 and sexual behaviour in rural South Africa: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2008;337:a506. [1756‐1833: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Kamali 2003 {published data only}
    1. Kamali A, Quigley M, Nakiyingi J, Kinsman J, Kengeya‐Kayondo J, Gopal R, et al. Syndromic management of sexually‐transmitted infections and behaviour change interventions on transmission of HIV‐1 in rural Uganda: a community randomised trial. Lancet 2003;361(9358):645‐52. [0140‐6736: (Print)] - PubMed
NIMH 2010 {published data only}
    1. NIMH Collaborative HIV/STD Prevention Trial Group. Results of the NIMH collaborative HIV/sexually transmitted disease prevention trial of a community popular opinion leader intervention. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2010;54(2):204‐14. [1944‐7884: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Ross 2007 {published data only}
    1. Ross DA, Changalucha J, Obasi AI, Todd J, Plummer ML, Cleophas‐Mazige B, et al. Biological and behavioural impact of an adolescent sexual health intervention in Tanzania: a community‐randomized trial. AIDS 2007;21(14):1943‐55. [0269‐9370: (Print)] - PubMed

References to studies excluded from this review

Arnold 2012 {published data only}
    1. Arnold R, Maticka‐Tyndale E, Tenkorang E, Holland D, Gaspard A, Luginaah I. Evaluation of school‐ and community‐based HIV prevention interventions with junior secondary school students in Edo State, Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health 2012;16(2):103‐25. - PubMed
Bassett 1998 {published data only}
    1. Bassett M. Impact of peer education on HIV infection in Zimbabwe. Sexual Health Exchange 1998;4:14‐15. - PubMed
Basu 2004 {published data only}
    1. Basu I, Jana S, Rotherman‐Borus MJ, Swendeman D, Lee SJ, Newman P, et al. HIV prevention among sex workers in India. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2004;36(3):845‐52. - PMC - PubMed
Beattie 2010 {published data only}
    1. Beattie TS, Bhattacharjee P, et al. Violence against female sex workers in Karnataka state, south India: impact on health, and reductions in violence following an intervention program. BMC Public Health 2010;10:476. - PMC - PubMed
Bolu 2004 {published data only}
    1. Bolu OO, Lindsey C, Kamb ML, Kent C, Zenilman J, Douglas JM, et al: Project RESPECT Study Group. Is HIV/sexually transmitted disease prevention counseling effective among vulnerable populations?: a subset analysis of data collected for a randomized, controlled trial evaluating counseling efficacy (Project RESPECT). Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2004;31(8):469‐74. - PubMed
Boyer 2005 {published data only}
    1. Boyer CB, Shafer MA, Shaffer RA, Brodine SK, Pollack LM, Betsinger K, et al. Evaluation of a cognitive‐behavioral, group, randomized controlled intervention trial to prevent sexually transmitted infections and unintended pregnancies in young women. Preventive Medicine 2005;40(4):420‐31. [0091‐7435: (Print)] - PubMed
Campos 2013 {published data only}
    1. Campos PE, Buffardi A L, Carcamo CP, Garcia PJ, Buendia C, Chiappe M, et al. Reaching the unreachable: providing STI control services to female sex workers via mobile team outreach. PLoS One 2013;8(11):e81041. - PMC - PubMed
Celentano 1998 {published data only}
    1. Celentano D D, Nelson KE, Lyles CM, Beyrer C, Eiumtrakul S, Go VF, et al. Decreasing incidence of HIV and sexually transmitted diseases in young Thai men: evidence for success of the HIV/AIDS control and prevention program.. AIDS 1998;12(5):F29‐36. - PubMed
DiClemente 2009 {published data only}
    1. DiClemente RJ, Wingood GM, Rose ES, Sales JM, Lang DL, Caliendo AM, et al. Efficacy of sexually transmitted disease/human immunodeficiency virus sexual risk‐reduction intervention for African American adolescent females seeking sexual health services: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2009;163(12):1112‐21. - PubMed
Doyle 2011 {published data only}
    1. Doyle AM, Weiss HA, Maganja K, Kapiga S, McCormack S, Watson‐Jones D, et al. The long‐term impact of the MEMA kwa Vijana adolescent sexual and reproductive health intervention: Effects of dose and time since exposure to intervention. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2011;87:A215. - PMC - PubMed
Duan 2013 {published data only}
    1. Duan Y, Zhang H, Wang J, Wei S, Yu F, She M. Community‐based peer intervention to reduce HIV risk among men who have sex with men in Sichuan province, China. AIDS Education and Prevention 2013;25(1):38‐48. - PubMed
El‐Bassel 2010 {published data only}
    1. El‐Bassel N, Jemmott JB, Landis JR, Pequegnat W, Wingood GM, Wyatt GE, et al: NIMH Multisite HIV/STD Prevention Trial for African American Couples Group. National Institute of Mental Health Multisite Eban HIV/STD prevention intervention for African American HIV serodiscordant couples: a cluster randomized trial. Archives of Internal Medicine 2010;170(17):1594‐1601. - PMC - PubMed
Fontanet 1998 {published data only}
    1. Fontanet AL, Saba J, Chandelying V, Sakondhavat C, Bhiraleus P, Rugpao S, et al. Protection against sexually transmitted diseases by granting sex workers in Thailand the choice of using the male or female condom: results from a randomized controlled trial. AIDS 1998;12(14):1851‐9. - PubMed
Grosskurth 1995 {published data only}
    1. Grosskurth H, Mosha F, Todd J, Mwijarubi E, Klokke A, Senkoro K, et al. Impact of improved treatment of sexually transmitted diseases on HIV infection in rural Tanzania: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1995;346(8974):530‐6. - PubMed
Kalichman 2013 {published data only}
    1. Kalichman SC, Simbayi LC, Cain D, Carey KB, Carey MP, Eaton L, et al. Randomized community‐level HIV prevention intervention trial for men who drink in South African alcohol‐serving venues. European Journal of Public Health 2013;18:18. - PMC - PubMed
Kamb 1998 {published data only}
    1. Kamb ML, Fishbein M, Douglas JM Jr, Rhodes F, Rogers J, Bolan G, et al. Efficacy of risk‐reduction counseling to prevent human immunodeficiency virus and sexually transmitted diseases: a randomized controlled trial. Project RESPECT Study Group. JAMA 1998;280(13):1161‐7. - PubMed
Kennedy 2012 {published data only}
    1. Kennedy SB. Community trial to prevent HIV/STDs among rural youths in post‐conflict Liberia. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2012;17:10.
Kerrigan 2006 {published data only}
    1. Kerrigan D, Moreno L, Rosario S, Gomez B, Jerez H, Barrington C, et al. Environmental‐structural interventions to reduce HIV/STI risk among female sex workers in the Dominican Republic. American Journal of Public Health 2006;96(1):120‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2007 {published data only}
    1. Kim JC, Watts CH, Hargreaves JR, Ndhlovu LX, Phetla G, Morison LA, et al. Understanding the impact of a microfinance‐based intervention on women's empowerment and the reduction of intimate partner violence in South Africa. American Journal of Public Health 2007;97(10):1794‐802. - PMC - PubMed
Kim 2009 {published data only}
    1. Kim J1, Ferrari G, Abramsky T, Watts C, Hargreaves J, Morison L, et al. Assessing the incremental effects of combining economic and health interventions: the IMAGE study in South Africa. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2009;87(11):824‐32. - PMC - PubMed
Koblin 2004 {published data only}
    1. Koblin B, Chesney M, Coates T, EXPLORE Study Team. Effects of a behavioural intervention to reduce acquisition of HIV infection among men who have sex with men: the EXPLORE randomised controlled study. Lancet 2004;364(9428):41‐50. - PubMed
Labbe 2012 {published data only}
    1. Labbé AC1, Pépin J, Khonde N, Dzokoto A, Méda H, Asamoah‐Adu C, et al. Periodical antibiotic treatment for the control of gonococcal and chlamydial infections among sex workers in Benin and Ghana: a cluster‐randomized placebo‐controlled trial. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2012;39(4):253‐9. - PubMed
Larke 2010 {published data only}
    1. Larke N, Cleophas‐Mazige B, Plummer ML, Obasi AI, Rwakatare M, Todd J, et al. Impact of the MEMA kwa Vijana adolescent sexual and reproductive health interventions on use of health services by young people in rural Mwanza, Tanzania: results of a cluster randomized trial. Journal of Adolescent Health 2010;47(5):512‐22. - PubMed
Mathews 2012 {published data only}
    1. Mathews C, Aarø LE, Grimsrud A, Flisher AJ, Kaaya S, Onya H, et al. Effects of the SATZ teacher‐led school HIV prevention programmes on adolescent sexual behaviour: cluster randomised controlled trials in three sub‐Saharan African sites. International Health 2012;4(12):111‐22. - PubMed
Maticka‐Tyndale, E. 2011 {published data only}
    1. Maticka‐Tyndale E, Onokheroya A. HIV prevention for rural youth in Nigeria: Evaluation results of school‐ and community‐based programming. Journal of Sexual Medicine 2011;8:128.
Metcalf 2005 {published data only}
    1. Metcalf CA1, Douglas JM Jr, Malotte CK, Cross H, Dillon BA, Paul SM, et al. RESPECT‐2 Study Group. Relative efficacy of prevention counseling with rapid and standard HIV testing: a randomized, controlled trial (RESPECT‐2). Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2005;32(2):130‐8. - PubMed
Okonofua 2003 {published data only}
    1. Okonofua FE1, Coplan P, Collins S, Oronsaye F, Ogunsakin D, Ogonor JT, et al. Impact of an intervention to improve treatment‐seeking behavior and prevent sexually transmitted diseases among Nigerian youths. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2003;7(1):61‐73. - PubMed
Padian 2007 {published data only}
    1. Padian NS, Straten A, Ramjee G, Chipato T, Bruyn G, Blanchard K, et al. MIRA Team. Diaphragm and lubricant gel for prevention of HIV acquisition in southern African women: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007;370(9583):251‐61. - PMC - PubMed
Pronyk 2006 {published data only}
    1. Pronyk PM, Hargreaves JR, Kim JC, Morison LA, Phetla G, Watts C, et al. Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate‐partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: a cluster randomised trial. Lancet 2006;368(9551):1973‐83. [1474‐547X: (Electronic)] - PubMed
Pronyk 2008 {published data only}
    1. Pronyk PM1, Kim JC, Abramsky T, Phetla G, Hargreaves JR, Morison LA, et al. A combined microfinance and training intervention can reduce HIV risk behaviour in young female participants. AIDS 2008;22(13):1659‐65. - PubMed
Quigley 2004 {published data only}
    1. Quigley MA1, Kamali A, Kinsman J, Kamulegeya I, Nakiyingi‐Miiro J, Kiwuwa S, et al. The impact of attending a behavioural intervention on HIV incidence in Masaka, Uganda. AIDS 2004;18(15):2055‐63. - PubMed
Rotheram‐Borus 2011 {published data only}
    1. Rotheram‐Borus MJ, Wu Z, Liang LJ, Li L, Detels R, Guan J, et al: NIMH Collaborative HIV/STD Prevention Trial Group. Reductions in sexually transmitted infections associated with popular opinion leaders in China in a randomised controlled trial. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2011;87(4):337‐43. - PMC - PubMed
Sawaya 2008 {published data only}
    1. Sawaya GF, Chirenje MZ, Magure MT, Tuveson JL, Ma Y, Shiboski SC, et al. Effect of diaphragm and lubricant gel provision on human papillomavirus infection among women provided with condoms: a randomized controlled trial. Obstetrics & Gynecology 2008;112(5):990‐7. - PubMed
Shain 2004 {published data only}
    1. Shain RN, Piper JM, Holden AE, Champion JD, Perdue ST, Korte JE, et al. Prevention of gonorrhea and chlamydia through behavioral intervention: results of a two‐year controlled randomized trial in minority women. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2004;31(7):401‐8. - PubMed
Spielberg 2013 {published data only}
    1. Spielberg F, Crookston BT, Chanani S, Kim J, Kline S, Gray BL. Leveraging microfinance to impact HIV and financial behaviors among adolescents and their mothers in West Bengal: a cluster randomized trial. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 2013;25(2):157‐66. - PubMed
Strathdee 2013 {published data only}
    1. Strathdee SA, Abramovitz D, Lozada R, Martinez G, Rangel MG, Vera A, et al. Reductions in HIV/STI incidence and sharing of injection equipment among female sex workers who inject drugs: results from a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2013;8(6):e65812. - PMC - PubMed
Van der Straten 2009 {published data only}
    1. Straten A, Cheng H, Moore J, Kacanek D, Blanchard K, Bruyn G, et al. The use of the diaphragm instead of condoms in a phase III diaphragm trial. AIDS and Behavior 2009;13(3):564‐72. - PubMed
Wawer 1999 {published data only}
    1. Wawer MJ, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, Quinn TC, Paxton LA, Kiwanuka N, et al. Control of sexually transmitted diseases for AIDS prevention in Uganda: a randomised community trial. Rakai Project Study Group. Lancet 1999;353(9152):525‐35. - PubMed

References to studies awaiting assessment

References to ongoing studies

Vermund ongoing {published data only}
    1. Can combination prevention strategies reduce HIV transmission in generalized epidemic settings in Africa? The HPTN 071 (PopART) study plan in South Africa and Zambia. Ongoing study 2013. - PMC - PubMed

Additional references

Abdullah 2002
    1. Abdullah AS, Fielding R, Hedley AJ, Ebrahim SH, Luk YK. Reasons for not using condoms among the Hong Kong Chinese population: implications for HIV and STD prevention. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2002;78(3):180‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Adam 2009
    1. Adam PC, Wit JB, Toskin I, Mathers BM, Nashkhoev M, Zablotska I, et al. Estimating levels of HIV testing, HIV prevention coverage, HIV knowledge, and condom use among men who have sex with men (MSM) in low‐income and middle‐income countries. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2009;52 Suppl 2:S143‐51. - PubMed
Adimora 2010
    1. Adimora AA, Auerbach JD. Structural interventions for HIV prevention in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2010; Vol. 55:S132‐5. [1525‐4135] - PMC - PubMed
Akinyemi 2010
    1. Akinyemi JO, Awolude OA, Adewole IF, Kanki PJ. Condom use among antiretroviral therapy patients in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 2010;4(8):495‐502. [1972‐2680: (Electronic)] - PubMed
Anglemyer 2011
    1. Anglemyer A, Rutherford GW, Horvath T, Baggaley RC, Egger M, Siegfried N. Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of HIV transmission in HIV‐discordant couples. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009153] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Arora 2012
    1. Arora P, Nagelkerke NJ, Jha P. A systematic review and meta‐analysis of risk factors for sexual transmission of HIV in India. PLoS One 2012;7(8):e44094. - PMC - PubMed
Atienza 2002
    1. Atienza AA, King AC. Community‐based health intervention trials: an overview of methodological issues. Epidemiologic Reviews 2002;24(1):72‐9. - PubMed
Bandura 1986
    1. Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. 1st Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1986.
Barnett 2006
    1. Barnett T, Whiteside A. AIDS in the Twenty‐First Century: Disease and Globalization. 2nd Edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Berhan 2012
    1. Berhan A, Berhan Y. Is the sexual Behaviour of HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy safe or risky in Sub‐Saharan Africa? Meta‐analysis and meta‐regression. AIDS Research and Therapy 2012;9(1):14. - PMC - PubMed
Bertrand 2006
    1. Bertrand JT, O'Reilly K, Denison J, Anhang R, Sweat M. Systematic review of the effectiveness of mass communication programs to change HIV/AIDS‐related behaviors in developing countries. Health Education Research 2006;21(4):567‐97. [0268‐1153: (Print)] - PubMed
Blankenship 2000
    1. Blankenship KM, Bray SJ, Merson MH. Structural interventions in public health. AIDS 2000;14 Suppl 1:S11‐21. - PubMed
Blankenship 2010
    1. Blankenship KM, Biradavolu MR, Jena A, George A. Challenging the stigmatization of female sex workers through a community‐led structural intervention: learning from a case study of a female sex worker intervention in Andhra Pradesh, India. AIDS Care: Psychological and Socio‐medical Aspects of AIDS/HIV 2010;22(1 supp 2):1629‐36. [0954‐0121] - PubMed
Britannica 2003
    1. Islam | Christianity. Encyclopædia Britannica 2003:306.
Charania 2011
    1. Charania MR, Crepaz N, Guenther‐Gray C, Henny K, Liau A, Willis LA, et al. Efficacy of structural‐level condom distribution interventions: a meta‐analysis of U.S. and international studies, 1998‐2007. AIDS and Behavior 2011;15(7):1283‐97. [1573‐3254: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Coates 2008
    1. Coates TJ, Richter L, Caceres C. Behavioural strategies to reduce HIV transmission: how to make them work better. The Lancet 2008;372(9639):669‐84. [0140‐6736] - PMC - PubMed
Cohen 2006
    1. Cohen DA, Wu SY, Farley TA. Structural interventions to prevent HIV/sexually transmitted disease: are they cost‐effective for women in the southern United States?. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2006;33(7 Suppl):S46‐9. [0148‐5717: (Print)] - PubMed
Cohen 2011
    1. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, Kumarasamy N, et al. HPTN 052 Study Team. Prevention of HIV‐1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. The New England Journal of Medicine 2011;365(6):493‐505. - PMC - PubMed
Crepaz 2004
    1. Crepaz N, Hart TA, Marks G. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and sexual risk behavior. JAMA 2004;292(2):224‐36. - PubMed
Crosby 2005
    1. Crosby R, Yarber WL, Sanders SA, Graham CA. Condom discomfort and associated problems with their use among university students. The Journal of American College Health 2005;54(3):143‐7. [0744‐8481: (Print)] - PubMed
D'Amico 2012
    1. D'Amico EJ, Tucker JS, Miles JN, Zhou AJ, Shih RA, Green HD Jr. Preventing alcohol use with a voluntary after‐school program for middle school students: results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of CHOICE. Prevention Science 2012;13(4):415‐25. - PMC - PubMed
da Silveira 2005
    1. Silveira MF, dos Santos IS, Beria JU, Horta BL, Tomasi E, Victora CG. Factors associated with condom use in women from an urban area in southern Brazil. Cadernos de Saúde Pública 2005;21(5):1557‐64. [0102‐311X: (Print)] - PubMed
Dandona 2005
    1. Dandona R, Dandona L, Gutierrez J, Kumar A, McPherson S, Samuels F, et al. High risk of HIV in non‐brothel based female sex workers in India. BMC Public Health 2005;5(1):87. [1471‐2458] - PMC - PubMed
Donner 2000
    1. Donner A, Klar N. Design and Analysis of Cluster Randomization Trials in Health Research. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2000.
Essien 2005
    1. Essien E, Meshack A, Peters R, Ogungbade G, Osemene N. Strategies to prevent HIV transmission among heterosexual African‐American men. BMC Public Health 2005;5(1):3. [1471‐2458] - PMC - PubMed
Foss 2007
    1. Foss AM, Hossain M, Vickerman PT, Watts CH. A systematic review of published evidence on intervention impact on condom use in sub‐Saharan Africa and Asia. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2007;83(7):510‐6. [1472‐3263: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Gorbach 2005
    1. Gorbach PM, Drumright LN, Holmes KK. Discord, discordance, and concurrency: comparing individual and partnership‐level analyses of new partnerships of young adults at risk of sexually transmitted infections. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2005;32(1):7‐12. - PubMed
Gupta 2008
    1. Gupta GR, Parkhurst JO, Ogden JA, Aggleton P, Mahal A. Structural approaches to HIV prevention. The Lancet 2008; Vol. 372, issue 9640:764‐75. [0140‐6736] - PubMed
Hearst 2004
    1. Hearst N, Chen S. Condom promotion for AIDS prevention in the developing world: is it working?. Studies in Family Planning 2004;35(1):39‐47. [0039‐3665: (Print)] - PubMed
Hecht 2009
    1. Hecht R, Bollinger L, Stover J, McGreevey W, Muhib F, Madavo CE, et al. Critical choices in financing the response to the global HIV/AIDS pandemic. Health Affairs 2009;28(6):1591‐605. - PubMed
Herbst 2007a
    1. Herbst JH, Beeker C, Mathew A, McNally T, Passin WF, Kay LS, et al. The effectiveness of individual‐, group‐, and community‐level HIV behavioral risk‐reduction interventions for adult men who have sex with men: a systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2007;32(4 Suppl):S38‐67. [0749‐3797: (Print)] - PubMed
Herbst 2007b
    1. Herbst JH, Kay LS, Passin WF, Lyles CM, Crepaz N, Marin BV. A systematic review and meta‐analysis of behavioral interventions to reduce HIV risk behaviors of Hispanics in the United States and Puerto Rico. AIDS and Behavior 2007;11(1):25‐47. [1090‐7165: (Print)] - PubMed
Higgins 2011
    1. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from www.cochrane‐handbook.org.
Holmes 2004
    1. Holmes KK, Levine R, Weaver M. Effectiveness of condoms in preventing sexually transmitted infections. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2004;82(6):454‐61. - PMC - PubMed
HUMANAE VITAE 1968
    1. Pope PAUL VI. Of Human Life [HUMANAE VITAE]. Encyclical Letter of his Holiness Pope Paul Vl 1968.
Jadack 1997
    1. Jadack RA, Fresia A, Rompalo AM, Zenilman J. Reasons for not using condoms of clients at urban sexually transmitted diseases clinics. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 1997;24(7):402‐8. - PubMed
Johnson 2008
    1. Johnson WD, Diaz RM, Flanders WD, Goodman M, Hill AN, Holtgrave D, et al. Behavioral interventions to reduce risk for sexual transmission of HIV among men who have sex with men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001230] - DOI - PubMed
Jones 2012
    1. Jones J, Mosher W, Daniels K. Current contraceptive use in the United States, 2006–2010, and changes in patterns of use since 1995. National Health Statistics Reports 2012;60:25. - PubMed
Killip 2004
    1. Killip S, Mahfoud Z, Pearce K. What is an intracluster correlation coefficient? Crucial concepts for primary care researchers. The Annals of Family Medicine 2004;2(3):204‐8. - PMC - PubMed
Koenig 2012
    1. Koenig HG, King DE, Benner V. Handbook of Religion and Health. 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Kumar 2006
    1. Kumar GA, Dandona R, Gutierrez JP, McPherson S, Bertozzi SM, Dandona L. Access to condoms for female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh. The National Medical Journal of India 2006;19(6):306‐12. [0970‐258X: (Print)] - PubMed
Lau 2008
    1. Lau JT1, Wang M, Wong HN, Tsui HY, Jia M, Cheng F, et al. Prevalence of bisexual behaviors among men who have sex with men (MSM) in China and associations between condom use in MSM and heterosexual behaviors. Sexually Transmitted Diseases 2008;35(4):406‐13. - PubMed
Lefkowitz 2004
    1. Lefkowitz ES, Gillen MM, Shearer CL, Boone TL. Religiosity, sexual behaviors, and sexual attitudes during emerging adulthood. Journal of Sex Research 2004;41(2):150‐9. [0022‐4499: (Print)] - PubMed
Lyles 2007
    1. Lyles CM, Kay LS, Crepaz N, Herbst JH, Passin WF, Kim AS, et al. Best‐evidence interventions: findings from a systematic review of HIV behavioral interventions for US populations at high risk, 2000‐2004. American Journal of Public Health 2007;97(1):133‐43. [1541‐0048: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Mah 2010
    1. Mah TL, Halperin DT. Concurrent sexual partnerships and the HIV epidemics in Africa: evidence to move forward. AIDS and Behavior 2010;14(1):11‐6; discussion 34‐7. - PubMed
Majoko 2007
    1. Majoko F, Munjanja SP, Nystrom L, Mason E, Lindmark G. Randomised controlled trial of two antenatal care models in rural Zimbabwe. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2007;114(7):802‐11. - PubMed
Maticka‐Tyndale 2012
    1. Maticka‐Tyndale E. Condoms in sub‐Saharan Africa. Sexual Health 2012;9(1):59‐72. - PubMed
Matson 2010
    1. Matson PA, Adler NE, Millstein SG, Tschann JM, Ellen JM. Developmental changes in condom use among urban adolescent females: influence of partner context. Journal of Adolescent Health 2011;48(4):386‐90. [1054‐139X] - PMC - PubMed
Medley 2004
    1. Medley A, Garcia‐Moreno C, McGill S, Maman S. Rates, barriers and outcomes of HIV serostatus disclosure among women in developing countries: implications for prevention of mother‐to‐child transmission programmes. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2004;82(4):299‐307. [0042‐9686: (Print)] - PMC - PubMed
Medley 2009
    1. Medley A, Kennedy C, O'Reilly K, Sweat M. Effectiveness of peer education interventions for HIV prevention in developing countries: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. AIDS Education and Prevention 2009;21(3):181‐206. [1943‐2755: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Michielsen 2010
    1. Michielsen K, Chersich MF, Luchters S, Koker P, Rossem R, Temmerman M. Effectiveness of HIV prevention for youth in sub‐Saharan Africa: systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized and nonrandomized trials. AIDS 2010;24(8):1193‐202. [1473‐5571: (Electronic)] - PubMed
Ng 2011
    1. Ng BE, Butler LM, Horvath T, Rutherford GW. Population‐based biomedical sexually transmitted infection control interventions for reducing HIV infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001220] - DOI - PubMed
Noar 2008
    1. Noar SM. Behavioral interventions to reduce HIV‐related sexual risk behavior: review and synthesis of meta‐analytic evidence. AIDS and Behavior 2008;12(3):335‐53. - PubMed
Ojo 2011
    1. Ojo O, Verbeek JH, Rasanen K, Heikkinen J, Isotalo LK, Mngoma N, et al. Interventions to reduce risky sexual behaviour for preventing HIV infection in workers in occupational settings. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005274] - DOI - PubMed
Ortblad 2013
    1. Ortblad KF, Lozano R, Murray CJ. The burden of HIV: insights from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. AIDS 2013;27(13):2003‐17. - PMC - PubMed
Ota 2011
    1. Ota E, Wariki WM, Mori R, Hori N, Shibuya K. Behavioral interventions to reduce the transmission of HIV infection among sex workers and their clients in high‐income countries. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 12. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD006045] - DOI - PubMed
Painter 2001
    1. Painter TM. Voluntary counseling and testing for couples: a high‐leverage intervention for HIV/AIDS prevention in sub‐Saharan Africa. Social Science & Medicine 2001;53(11):1397‐411. - PubMed
Paul‐Ebhohimhen 2008
    1. Paul‐Ebhohimhen VA, Poobalan A, Teijlingen ER. A systematic review of school‐based sexual health interventions to prevent STI/HIV in sub‐Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health 2008;8:4. [1471‐2458: (Electronic)] - PMC - PubMed
Potts 2008
    1. Potts M, Halperin DT, Kirby D, Swidler A, Marseille E, Klausner JD, et al. Reassessing HIV prevention. Science 2008;320(5877):749‐50. - PMC - PubMed
Pulerwitz 2006
    1. Pulerwitz J, Barker G, Segundo M, Nascimento M. Promoting gender equity among young Brazilian men as an HIV prevention strategy (Horizons Research Summary). www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/horizons/brgndrnrmssum.pdf (accessed June 2013).
Randall 1991
    1. Randall D, Fernandes M. The social desirability response bias in ethics research. Journal of Business Ethics 1991;10(11):805‐17.
Reece 2010
    1. Reece M, Herbenick D, Schick V, Sanders SA, Dodge B, Fortenberry JD. Condom use rates in a national probability sample of males and females ages 14 to 94 in the United States. The Journal of Sexual Medicine 2010;7 Suppl 5:266‐76. - PubMed
Reniers 2010
    1. Reniers G, Watkins S. Polygyny and the spread of HIV in sub‐Saharan Africa: a case of benign concurrency. AIDS 2010;24(2):299‐307. - PMC - PubMed
Rojanapithayakorn 1996
    1. Rojanapithayakorn W, Hanenberg R. The 100% condom program in Thailand. AIDS 1996;10(1):1‐7. - PubMed
Roth 2001
    1. Roth J, Krishnan SP, Bunch E. Barriers to condom use: results from a study in Mumbai (Bombay), India. AIDS Education and Prevention 2001;13(1):65‐77. - PubMed
Sangani 2004
    1. Sangani P, Rutherford G, Wilkinson D. Population‐based interventions for reducing sexually transmitted infections, including HIV infection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001220] - DOI - PubMed
Sarkar 2008
    1. Sarkar NN. Barriers to condom use. The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care 2008;13(2):114‐22. - PubMed
Senn 2009
    1. Senn TE, Carey MP, Vanable PA, Coury‐Doniger P, Urban M. Sexual partner concurrency among STI clinic patients with a steady partner: correlates and associations with condom use. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2009;85(5):343‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Shahmanesh 2008
    1. Shahmanesh M, Patel V, Mabey D, Cowan F. Effectiveness of interventions for the prevention of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in female sex workers in resource poor setting: a systematic review. Tropical Medicine & International Health 2008;13(5):659‐79. [1365‐3156: (Electronic)] - PubMed
Shisana 2001
    1. Shisana O, Simbayi L. Nelson Mandela HSRC Study of HIV/AIDS: Full Report. South African national HIV prevalence, behavioural risks and mass media. Household Survey 2002. 1st Edition. Cape Town: The Human Science Research Council 2002, 2002.
Siegfried 2009
    1. Siegfried N, Muller M, Deeks JJ, Volmink J. Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003362.pub2] - DOI - PubMed
Subramanian 2008
    1. Subramanian T, Gupte MD, Paranjape RS, Brahmam GN, Ramakrishnan L, Adhikary R, et al. HIV, sexually transmitted infections and sexual behaviour of male clients of female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, India: results of a cross‐sectional survey. AIDS 2008;22 Suppl 5:S69‐79. - PubMed
Suleman 2012
    1. Otho SM, Perveen S, Abbas Q. FSWs typology and condoms use among HIV high risk groups in Sindh, Pakistan: a developing country perspective. ISDS Annual Conference Proceedings. 2012; Vol. ISSN 1947‐2579.
Sumartojo 2000
    1. Sumartojo E, Doll L, Holtgrave D, Gayle H, Merson M. Enriching the mix: incorporating structural factors into HIV prevention. AIDS 2000;14 Suppl 1:S1‐2. - PubMed
Sunmola 2005
    1. Sunmola AM. Sexual practices, barriers to condom use and its consistent use among long distance truck drivers in Nigeria. AIDS Care 2005;17(2):208‐21. - PubMed
Swerissen 2004
    1. Swerissen H, Crisp BR. The sustainability of health promotion interventions for different levels of social organization. Health Promotion International 2004;19(1):123‐30. - PubMed
Taljaard 2008
    1. Taljaard M, Donner A, Villar J, Wojdyla D, Velazco A, Bataglia V, et al. Intracluster correlation coefficients from the 2005 WHO Global Survey on Maternal and Perinatal Health: implications for implementation research. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 2008;22(2):117‐25. - PubMed
Thomsen 2004
    1. Thomsen S, Stalker M, Toroitich‐Ruto C. Fifty ways to leave your rubber: how men in Mombasa rationalise unsafe sex. Sexually Transmitted Infections 2004;80(6):430‐4. - PMC - PubMed
Townsend 2013
    1. Townsend L, Mathews C, Zembe Y. A systematic review of behavioral interventions to prevent HIV infection and transmission among heterosexual, adult men in low‐and middle‐Income countries. Prevention Science 2013;14(1):88‐105. - PubMed
UNAIDS 1999
    1. UNAIDS. Acting early to prevent AIDS: The case of Senegal. www.data.unaids.org/publications/irc‐pub04/una99‐34_en.pdf (accessed 1 December 2013).
UNAIDS 2007
    1. UNAIDS/WHO/London School of Hygiene, Tropical Medicine. Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability. www.who.int/hiv/pub/malecircumcision/globaltrends/en/ (accessed 15 June 2013).
UNAIDS 2013
    1. UNAIDS 2013. Global Report: UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2013. www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2013... (accessed 20 February 2014).
Underhill 2008
    1. Underhill K, Montgomery P, Operario D. Abstinence‐plus programs for HIV infection prevention in high‐income countries. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007006] - DOI - PubMed
USAID 2002
    1. USAID. What Happened in Uganda? Declining HIV Prevalance, Behavior Change, and the National Response. www.unicef.org/lifeskills/files/WhatHappenedInUganda.pdf (accessed July 26 2013).
Wang 2011
    1. Wang K, Brown K, Shen SY, Tucker J. Social network‐based interventions to promote condom use: a systematic review. AIDS and Behavior 2011;15(7):1298‐308. - PMC - PubMed
Wariki 2012
    1. Wariki WM, Ota E, Mori R, Koyanagi A, Hori N, Shibuya K. Behavioral interventions to reduce the transmission of HIV infection among sex workers and their clients in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012; Vol. 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
Weiss 1993
    1. Weiss RA. How does HIV cause AIDS?. Science 1993;260(5112):1273‐9. - PubMed
Weiss 2000
    1. Weiss HA, Quigley MA, Hayes RJ. Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub‐Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. AIDS 2000;14(15):2361‐70. - PubMed
Weller 2002
    1. Weller S, Davis K. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 3. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003255] - DOI - PMC - PubMed
WHO 2012
    1. WHO. Social determinants of health. www.who.int/social_determinants/B_132_14‐en.pdf (accessed 3 March 2014).
Xia 2005
    1. Xia G, Yang X. Risky sexual behavior among female entertainment workers in China: implications for HIV/STD prevention intervention. AIDS Education and Prevention 2005;17(2):143‐56. - PubMed

MeSH terms

LinkOut - more resources