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Review
. 2009 Mar;17(3):109-18.
doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2008.12.004. Epub 2009 Feb 21.

Vibrio biofilms: so much the same yet so different

Fitnat H Yildiz  1 , Karen L Visick
Affiliations
Review

Vibrio biofilms: so much the same yet so different

Fitnat H Yildiz et al. Trends Microbiol. 2009 Mar.

Abstract

Vibrios are natural inhabitants of aquatic environments and form symbiotic or pathogenic relationships with eukaryotic hosts. Recent studies reveal that the ability of vibrios to form biofilms (i.e. matrix-enclosed, surface-associated communities) depends upon specific structural genes (flagella, pili and exopolysaccharide biosynthesis) and regulatory processes (two-component regulators, quorum sensing and c-di-GMP signaling). Here, we compare and contrast mechanisms and regulation of biofilm formation by Vibrio species, with a focus on Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio fischeri. Although many aspects are the same, others differ dramatically. Crucial questions that remain to be answered regarding the molecular underpinnings of Vibrio biofilm formation are also discussed.

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1. Biofilms of V. cholerae and V. fisheri
(a)Three-dimensional biofilm structures of green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged wild type V. cholerae and a vps-I cluster mutant (unable to produce VPS) formed after 2, 6, 8 and 48 h post-inoculation in once-through flow cell. Images were acquired with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CSLM) and top-down and side views of biofilms are shown. Scale bar indicates 30 µm. Data (but not images) are from Yildiz et al., 2008 [66]. (b) Biofilm-like aggregate formation on the light organ of squid. Newly hatched squid were inoculated with GFP tagged wild-type cells (I) or sypN polysaccharide mutant carrying vector control (II), and wild-type cells (III) or sypN mutant overexpressing the histidine kinase RscS (IV). Between 2–6 hour post inoculation, squids were stained with Cell Tracker Orange (red color) and aggregate formation by V. fisheri strains was analyzed by CSLM. Data (but not images) are from Yip et al., 2006 [11].
Figure 2
Figure 2. Polysaccharide loci in Vibrio spp
The 3 major loci with established roles in biofilm formation in vibrio spp. are shown: (a) vps and vps-like, (b) syp and syp-like, and (c) cellulose. In V. cholerae, the large vps locus encompasses 2 sub-loci, vps-I and vps-II; the polysaccharide loci of other vibrios is more similar to vps-II than to vps-I and thus for clarity these sub-loci are separated. (a) V. cholerae (VC) vps locus (vps-I (VC0916-VC0927) and vps-II (VC0934-VC0938), V. parahaemolyticus (VP) cps locus, V. vulnificus (VV) wcr locus (VVA0395-VVA0387; VV21582-VV21574), and a vps-II-like locus in V. fischeri (VF) (VF0352-VF0344). (b) V. fischeri syp locus (VFA1020-VFA1037), and similar loci in V. parahaemolyticus (VP1476-1458) and V. vulnificus (VV12658-VV12674). (c). V. fischeri cellulose locus (VFA0885-VFA0881). Genes (not drawn to scale) are represented by arrows. Gray arrows represent genes that are dissimilar to others in the same panel, while those with the same color exhibit sequence similarity. Genes are named as labeled.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Regulation of biofilm formation in Vibrio spp
Biofilm formation in V. cholerae is positively regulated by the regulators VpsR and VpsT. The magnitude of transcriptional control of vps genes by VpsR is greater than that of VpsT. Expression of vps genes and the regulators VpsR and VpsT are negatively controlled by the HapR regulator. In V. parahaemolyticus expression of cps genes is negatively regulated by a homolog of VpsT, CpsS. In the absence of CpsS, OpaR and CpsR (HapR and VpsR homologs, respectively) positively control cps gene expression and biofilm formation. In V. fischeri transcription of syp genes and biofilm formation are positively controlled by the histidine kinases RscS and/or SypF which act through response regulator SypG. SypF also positively regulates production of cellulose (cel), acting though the VpsR homolog of V. fischeri. The roles of VpsR and SypE as inhibitors are poorly understood and thus these are omitted from this figure.
Figure 4
Figure 4. C-di-GMP signaling proteins in Vibrio spp
Cyclic di-guanosine-monophosphate (c-di-GMP) controls cell surface structures and biofilm formation in a diverse group of microorganisms. C-di-GMP is created from GTP (guanosine-5’-triphosphate) by diguanylate cyclase proteins that bear a GGDEF amino acid motif and degraded to the dinucleotide pGpG by phosphodiesterase proteins with EAL domains. C-di-GMP can be sensed by proteins with a PilZ domain. Numbers of genes encoding GGDEF, EAL, dual GGDEF/EAL or PilZ domain proteins in different Vibrio species are shown.
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