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Review
. 2023 Oct 27:18:6153-6183.
doi: 10.2147/IJN.S436867. eCollection 2023.

Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Hydrogels as Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review

Thiago Domingues Stocco  1 , Tianyi Zhang  2 , Edgar Dimitrov  2 , Anupama Ghosh  3 , Alessandro Marcio Hakme da Silva  1 , Wanessa C M A Melo  4 , Willian Gonçalves Tsumura  1 , André Diniz Rosa Silva  5   6 , Gustavo F Sousa  6 , Bartolomeu C Viana  6 , Mauricio Terrones  2 , Anderson Oliveira Lobo  6
Affiliations
Review

Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Hydrogels as Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review

Thiago Domingues Stocco et al. Int J Nanomedicine. .

Abstract

Carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) are a category of nanomaterials with various systems based on combinations of sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbon bonds, morphologies, and functional groups. CBNs can exhibit distinguished properties such as high mechanical strength, chemical stability, high electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility. These desirable physicochemical properties have triggered their uses in many fields, including biomedical applications. In this review, we specifically focus on applying CBNs as scaffolds in tissue engineering, a therapeutic approach whereby CBNs can act for the regeneration or replacement of damaged tissue. Here, an overview of the structures and properties of different CBNs will first be provided. We will then discuss state-of-the-art advancements of CBNs and hydrogels as scaffolds for regenerating various types of human tissues. Finally, a perspective of future potentials and challenges in this field will be presented. Since this is a very rapidly growing field, we expect that this review will promote interdisciplinary efforts in developing effective tissue regeneration scaffolds for clinical applications.

Keywords: biomaterial; carbon; nanotechnology; scaffold; tissue engineering.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Different carbon-based nanomaterials used in tissue engineering approaches are categorized by dimensionality from 0D to 3D.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Schematic illustrating the application of carbon-based nanomaterials in tissue engineering. In order to generate new tissues and/or promote the regeneration of body parts (such as heart, skeletal muscle, bone, and articular cartilage), cells are grown on carbon-based nanomaterial scaffolds, promoting an environment in which cells can adhere, migrate, proliferate and stimulate the tissue formation. In addition, mechanical and/or biochemical signals can be added to improve cell differentiation and the growth of neotissue.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Schematic representation of the rGO incorporation polymer-based scaffold to increase the mechanical properties and promotes osteogenic differentiation.
Figure 4
Figure 4
The effect of the incorporation of CNT in PLA nanofibers on the mechanical properties (A) and cell viability (B), compared with pure PLA and PLA with gelatin (GEL). Adapted from Markowski J, Magiera A, Lesiak M, Sieron AL, Pilch J, Blazewicz S. Preparation and characterization of nanofibrous polymer scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering. J Nanomater. 2015;2015:1–9. Creative Commons. **Statistical difference P < 0.01 when compared to control.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Schematic representation showing the CSMA/PECA/GO hybrid scaffold with potential application in cartilage tissue engineering. To produce the scaffold, an aqueous solution containing PECA, CSMA, GO, and Ammonium persulfate (APS, used as the initiator agent) was heated at 60° C for 2 h. Then, after the incorporation of cells, the scaffold was inserted into a defect in rabbit articular cartilage, where it demonstrated an important regenerative capacity after 18 weeks. Reprinted from Liao J, Qu Y, Chu B, Zhang X, Qian Z. Biodegradable CSMA/PECA/Graphene porous hybrid scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Sci Rep. 2015;5(1):9879. Creative Commons.
Figure 6
Figure 6
The conductivity of CNTs allows the differentiation of MSCs and promotes tissue architecture formation. Reprinted from Namgung S, Baik KY, Park J, Hong S. Controlling the growth and differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells by the arrangement of individual carbon nanotubes. ACS Nano. 2011;5(9):7383–7390. Copyright © 2011 American Chemical Society.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Synthesis of self-assembled graphene hydrogel by hydrothermal reduction reaction. The homogeneous GO dispersed in water was sealed in a Teflon-lined autoclave and hydrothermally treated at 180 °C for 12–44 hours. Next, the autoclave is cooled to room temperature, and the synthesized self-assembled graphene hydrogel is removed and dried with filter paper to remove the water adsorbed on the surface.
Figure 8
Figure 8
3D graphene oxide/Poly (N-isopropylacrylamide composite hydrogel responsive to near-infrared light for capturing and releasing cells on demand. Reprinted from Li W, Wang J, Ren J, Qu X. 3D graphene oxide-polymer hydrogel: near-infrared light-triggered active scaffold for reversible cell capture and on-demand release. Adv Mater. 2013;25(46):6737–6743.
Figure 9
Figure 9
Scheme illustrating the synthesis of the graphene/Ag composite hydrogel. First, a solution of Ag(NH3)2OH is obtained by slowly adding NH3H2O to an AgNO3 solution. This resulting solution is poured into a GO solution, and a glucose solution is added (as a green, reducing agent). Then, crosslinking was achieved by incorporating acrylic acid and N, N ′-methylene bis-acrylamide. Reprinted from Fan Z, Liu B, Wang J, et al. A novel wound dressing based on Ag/Graphene polymer hydrogel: effectively kill bacteria and accelerate wound healing. Adv Funct Mater. 2014;24(25):3933–3943. © 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
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