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Review
. 2023 Jan 13;15(2):425.
doi: 10.3390/polym15020425.

Cellulose-Chitosan Functional Biocomposites

Simona Strnad  1 , Lidija Fras Zemljič  1
Affiliations
Review

Cellulose-Chitosan Functional Biocomposites

Simona Strnad et al. Polymers (Basel). .

Abstract

Here, we present a detailed review of recent research and achievements in the field of combining two extremely important polysaccharides; namely, cellulose and chitosan. The most important properties of the two polysaccharides are outlined, giving rise to the interest in their combination. We present various structures and forms of composite materials that have been developed recently. Thus, aerogels, hydrogels, films, foams, membranes, fibres, and nanofibres are discussed, alongside the main techniques for their fabrication, such as coextrusion, co-casting, electrospinning, coating, and adsorption. It is shown that the combination of bacterial cellulose with chitosan has recently gained increasing attention. This is particularly attractive, because both are representative of a biopolymer that is biodegradable and friendly to humans and the environment. The rising standard of living and growing environmental awareness are the driving forces for the development of these materials. In this review, we have shown that the field of combining these two extraordinary polysaccharides is an inexhaustible source of ideas and opportunities for the development of advanced functional materials.

Keywords: biocomposites; cellulose–chitosan; fibres; films; functional materials; hydrogels; nanofibers.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The number of publications with the keyword “cellulose–chitosan” (in the abstract) over time (source: www.lens.org; accessed on 21 December 2022).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Shares of publications per country or region (source: www.lens.org; accessed on 21 December 2022).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Chemical structure of cellulose (a), chitin and chitosan (b)—chitin consists mainly of monomers “m” (N-acetyl form), while chitosan, according to the degree of deacetylation, consists mainly of monomers “n” (amine form) [15]. Review of Chitosan and Its Derivatives as Antimicrobial Agents and Their Uses as Textile Chemicals. Lim, Sang-Hoon, Hudson, Samuel M., Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part C, 6 January 2003; reprinted with permission of the publisher Taylor & Francis.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Structural hierarchy in an arthropod cuticle. Levels I to VII represent the general model assumed for the organic matrix in the cuticle; [17]. Reprinted from the Journal of the Mechanical Behaviour of Biomedical Materials, 4/2, S. Nikolov, H. Fabritius, M. Petrov, M. Friák, L. Lymperakis, C. Sachs, D. Raabe, J. Neugebauer, Robustness and optimal use of design principles of arthropod exoskeletons studied by ab initio-based multiscale simulations, 129–145, Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Chitosan secondary structures as determined by solid X-ray crystallography. (A) Two-fold; (B) three-fold; (C) four-fold; (D) five-fold; (E) two-relaxed-fold [40].
Figure 6
Figure 6
Chitin and chitosan chains simulated at different pH values: (A) chitin and (B) chitosan at basic (pH = 10), (C) chitosan circumneutral (pH = 6.5), (D) chitosan acid (pH = 3.5). A positive charge is represented by patches in blue [40].
Figure 7
Figure 7
Schematic model of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin arrangement in lignocellulosic sources, [56].
Figure 8
Figure 8
Inter- and intra- molecular hydrogen bonds in the molecular structure of cellulose [58].
Figure 9
Figure 9
Porous structures of freeze-dried gels prepared using an aqueous LiOH/urea solution for co-dissolution of cellulose and chitosan (CLU: pure cellulose, CCLU1-3 hydrogels with increased amounts of chitosan from 25 to 75%) [96].
Figure 10
Figure 10
Schematic presentation of cellulose chitosan composite sponge formation with the micrographs of the sponges’ open-pore structure and the influence of chitosan content onto BSA adsorption efficiency. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Liu, C.; Yu, J.; You, J.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, M.; Shi, L.; Zhuang, X. Cellulose/Chitosan Composite Sponge for Efficient Protein Adsorption. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 2021, 60, 9159–9166 [81]. Copyright 2021 American Chemical Society.
Figure 11
Figure 11
Schematic presentation of the approach of Cao et al. to the preparation of composite chitosan coated cellulose membrane Reprinted by permission from: [Springer Nature] [CELLULOSE] [131] (A facile and green strategy for the preparation of porous chitosan-coated cellulose composite membranes for potential applications as wound dressing, Cao, Zhenni, Luo, Xiaogang, Zhang, Hao, Fu, Zhen, Shen, Zhi, Cai, Ning, Xue, Yanan, Yu, Faquan), Copyright (2016).
Figure 12
Figure 12
The photograph of the cellulose–chitosan composite fibres made by [152] using a binary ionic liquid system and the dry-wet spinning procedure. Reprinted from Carbohydrate Polymers, 88/1, Ma, Bomou, Zhang, Meng, He, Chunju, Sun, Junfen, New binary ionic liquid system for the preparation of chitosan/cellulose composite fibers, 347–351, Copyright (2012), with permission from Elsevier.
Figure 13
Figure 13
Preparation scheme of regenerated cellulose–chitosan fibres for improved carbon yield and structural properties of the respective carbon fibres [154].
Figure 14
Figure 14
Cellulose chitosan composite nanofibres made via electrospinning from a trifluoroacetic and acetic acid co-solvent system and treated further with Na2CO3. Reprinted with permission from: Springer Nature, CELLULOSE [156] (Fabrication of electrospun chitosan/cellulose nanofibers having adsorption property with enhanced mechanical property, Phan, Duy-Nam, Lee, Hoik, Huang, Bijun, Mukai, Yasuhito, Kim, Ick-Soo) Copyright (2018).
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