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Review
. 2022 Dec 5;12(23):4319.
doi: 10.3390/nano12234319.

Environmental Implications Associated with the Development of Nanotechnology: From Synthesis to Disposal

Otávio Augusto L Dos Santos  1 , Bianca Pizzorno Backx  2 , Rasha A Abumousa  3 , Mohamed Bououdina  3
Affiliations
Review

Environmental Implications Associated with the Development of Nanotechnology: From Synthesis to Disposal

Otávio Augusto L Dos Santos et al. Nanomaterials (Basel). .

Abstract

Nanotechnology remains under continuous development. The unique, fascinating, and tunable properties of nanomaterials make them interesting for diverse applications in different fields such as medicine, agriculture, and remediation. However, knowledge about the risks associated with nanomaterials is still poorly known and presents variable results. Furthermore, the interaction of nanomaterials with biological systems and the environment still needs to be clarified. Moreover, some issues such as toxicity, bioaccumulation, and physicochemical transformations are found to be dependent on several factors such as size, capping agent, and shape, making the comparisons even more complex. This review presents a comprehensive discussion about the consequences of the use and development of nanomaterials regarding their potential risks to the environment as well as human and animal health. For this purpose, we reviewed the entire production chain from manufacturing, product development, applications, and even product disposal to raise the important implications at each stage. In addition, we present the recent developments in terms of risk management and the recycling of nanomaterials. Furthermore, the advances and limitations in the legislation and characterization of nanomaterials are also discussed.

Keywords: environment; green synthesis; nanomaterials; risks; toxicity; transformations.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
The life cycle of NMs. It begins with extensive research and development of an appropriate synthesis route, followed by the development of a product and its consequent use. Finally, it is necessary to correctly dispose of the NM products when no longer utilized.
Figure 2
Figure 2
NM transformations in the environment. Depending on the environment they are in, nanomaterials can undergo physical-chemical transformations, involving aggregation, dissolution into its ions, or the adsorption of molecules on their surface as natural organic matter (NOM). Reprinted with permission from Jorge de Souza, Rosa Souza and Franchi, (2019). Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Protein corona consists of two layers: the hard corona is an inner layer composed of high-affinity proteins, and the soft corona is an outer layer that is weakly bound by low-affinity proteins not directly bound to the nanomaterial.
Figure 4
Figure 4
(A) Proposed pathway for new particle formation by the dissolution process of the parentals. First, surface oxidation occurs with ambient oxygen and water. Ionized silver diffuses away from the parent particle in the water layer driven by the concentration gradient. New particle formation by nucleation via the chemical and/or photochemical reduction of silver ions. (B) Formation of small NPs in the vicinity of 75 nm AgNPs at 100% relative humidity over five weeks. TEM images during the exposure period show increasing numbers of small NPs throughout this period (Glover, Miller and Hutchison, 2011). Reprinted with permission from Glover, Miller and Hutchison, (2011). Copyright © 2011, American Chemical Society.
Figure 5
Figure 5
Major possible consequences of the toxicity of nanomaterials to human health. The main routes of exposure are ingestion, inhalation, and absorption through the skin, which can cause damage to different organs such as the lungs, kidneys, heart, stomach, and liver. At the cellular level, nanomaterials are believed to affect cells through mitochondrial damage (1), ROS production (2), DNA and protein damage (3) as well as cell membrane disruption (4).
Figure 6
Figure 6
NMs can cause harm associated with acute and chronic exposure that can affect the entire food chain. NMs can directly affect each member of a food chain and accumulate in their tissues. Furthermore, this accumulation can be transferred through the trophic levels, causing even greater damage, mainly to the top predator of the chain.
Figure 7
Figure 7
Nanotechnology can be a powerful development tool for society while considering sustainability as an important factor in this process and using more eco-friendly approaches during production.
See this image and copyright information in PMC

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