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Review
. 2020 May 20;8(2):237.
doi: 10.3390/vaccines8020237.

Nanotechnology-Based Vaccines for Allergen-Specific Immunotherapy: Potentials and Challenges of Conventional and Novel Adjuvants under Research

Litty Johnson  1 , Albert Duschl  1 , Martin Himly  1
Affiliations
Review

Nanotechnology-Based Vaccines for Allergen-Specific Immunotherapy: Potentials and Challenges of Conventional and Novel Adjuvants under Research

Litty Johnson et al. Vaccines (Basel). .

Abstract

The increasing prevalence of allergic diseases demands efficient therapeutic strategies for their mitigation. Allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is the only causal rather than symptomatic treatment method available for allergy. Currently, AIT is being administered using immune response modifiers or adjuvants. Adjuvants aid in the induction of a vigorous and long-lasting immune response, thereby improving the efficiency of AIT. The successful development of a novel adjuvant requires a thorough understanding of the conventional and novel adjuvants under development. Thus, this review discusses the potentials and challenges of these adjuvants and their mechanism of action. Vaccine development based on nanoparticles is a promising strategy for AIT, due to their inherent physicochemical properties, along with their ease of production and ability to stimulate innate immunity. Although nanoparticles have provided promising results as an adjuvant for AIT in in vivo studies, a deeper insight into the interaction of nanoparticle-allergen complexes with the immune system is necessary. This review focuses on the methods of harnessing the adjuvant effect of nanoparticles by detailing the molecular mechanisms underlying the immune response, which includes allergen uptake, processing, presentation, and induction of T cell differentiation.

Keywords: AIT; CpG oligonucleotide; allergy; alum; calcium phosphate; microcrystalline tyrosine; nanoparticles.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest with regard to the content of this review.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Mechanisms of allergy induction and allergen-specific immunotherapy.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Scheme of three mechanisms of alum’s action as adjuvant for allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT). Mechanism A—depot formation leading to immunomodulation; Mechanism B—NLRP3 inflammasome activation resulting in allergen-specific antibody production; and Mechanism C—induction of self-DNA release promoting dendritic cell maturation.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Methods of loading allergens into or onto nanoparticles.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Adjuvanticity of nanoparticles along with the events associated in developing immune tolerance. In event A1, stimulation of immune responses by nanoparticles can be associated with NAMPs that can induce (event A2) signaling cascades, leading to the transcription of maturation genes. Nanoparticles can increase the uptake of allergen mainly by (event A3) macropinocytosis or (event A4) receptor-mediated endocytosis, based on the physicochemical properties of nanomaterial. In event B, nanoparticles associated with allergens can increase the proteolytic processing and lead to maturation of APCs marked by enhanced (event C) co-stimulatory molecule expression and (event D) cytokine release (IL-10, TGF-β), which further triggers (event E) T cell activation and differentiation.
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