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Review
. 2020 Apr 28:15:2957-2969.
doi: 10.2147/IJN.S250993. eCollection 2020.

Isolation and Functions of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Parasites: The Promise of a New Era in Immunotherapy, Vaccination, and Diagnosis

Mojdeh Khosravi  1 , Elnaz Sadat Mirsamadi  2 , Hamed Mirjalali  3 , Mohammad Reza Zali  4
Affiliations
Review

Isolation and Functions of Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Parasites: The Promise of a New Era in Immunotherapy, Vaccination, and Diagnosis

Mojdeh Khosravi et al. Int J Nanomedicine. .

Abstract

Experimental and epidemiological evidence shows that parasites, particularly helminths, play a central role in balancing the host immunity. It was demonstrated that parasites can modulate immune responses via their excretory/secretory (ES) and some specific proteins. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-scale particles that are released from eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. EVs in parasitological studies have been mostly employed for immunotherapy of autoimmune diseases, vaccination, and diagnosis. EVs can carry virulence factors and play a central role in the development of parasites in host cells. These molecules can manipulate the immune responses through transcriptional changes. Moreover, EVs derived from helminths modulate the immune system via provoking anti-inflammatory cytokines. On the other hand, EVs from parasite protozoa can induce efficient immunity, that makes them useful for probable next-generation vaccines. In addition, it seems that EVs from parasites may provide new diagnostic approaches for parasitic infections. In the current study, we reviewed isolation methods, functions, and applications of parasite's EVs in immunotherapy, vaccination, and diagnosis.

Keywords: diagnosis; extracellular vesicles; immunotherapy; parasites; vaccination.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors report no conflicts of interest for this work. This study was financially supported by the Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences with grant number: 1029, and received ethical approval from the ethics committee of the university (no. IR.SBMU.RCGLD.REC.1398.015).

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) extracted directly from parasites or indirectly from host cells sensed by parasites. Indirectly released EVs from host cells sensed by parasites are mostly used for vaccination and immunotherapy while for diagnosis, EVs originated from parasites are a regular target. EVs can also change the cytokine/chemokine pattern in recipient cells. Protozoan parasites mostly increase the level of cytokine/chemokine pattern involved in polarization of cellular immunity while EVs from helminths usually increase the level of immunomodulatory cytokines such as IL-4 and TGFβ. However, there are studies showing elevated levels of immunomodulatory cytokines in host cells affected by EVs from parasite protozoa or vice versa. Abbreviations: IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IFN- γ, interferon-gamma; TGF-β, tumor growth factor-beta; CCL, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Host cells usually release EVs in response to the environmental changes such as contact with parasites or their products. EVs contain DNA, messenger RNA, MicroRNA, proteins and lipids, and express MHC I and II. EVs are released via budding and vesicle cargo. EVs may affect the recipient cell through direct fusion, receptor–ligand interaction, as well as phagocytosis. Abbreviations: EVs, extracellular vesicles; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; mRNA, messenger RNA; miRNA, micro RNA.
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