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Review
. 2019 Mar 21;11(3):286.
doi: 10.3390/v11030286.

Caliciviridae Other Than Noroviruses

Ulrich Desselberger  1
Affiliations
Review

Caliciviridae Other Than Noroviruses

Ulrich Desselberger. Viruses. .

Abstract

Besides noroviruses, the Caliciviridae family comprises four other accepted genera: Sapovirus, Lagovirus, Vesivirus, and Nebovirus. There are six new genera proposed: Recovirus, Valovirus, Bavovirus, Nacovirus, Minovirus, and Salovirus. All Caliciviridae have closely related genome structures, but are genetically and antigenically highly diverse and infect a wide range of mammalian host species including humans. Recombination in nature is not infrequent for most of the Caliciviridae, contributing to their diversity. Sapovirus infections cause diarrhoea in pigs, humans and other mammalian hosts. Lagovirus infections cause systemic haemorrhagic disease in rabbits and hares, and vesivirus infections lead to lung disease in cats, vesicular disease in swine, and exanthema and diseases of the reproductive system in large sea mammals. Neboviruses are an enteric pathogen of cattle, differing from bovine norovirus. At present, only a few selected caliciviruses can be propagated in cell culture (permanent cell lines or enteroids), and for most of the cultivatable caliciviruses helper virus-free, plasmid only-based reverse genetics systems have been established. The replication cycles of the caliciviruses are similar as far as they have been explored: viruses interact with a multitude of cell surface attachment factors (glycans) and co-receptors (proteins) for adsorption and penetration, use cellular membranes for the formation of replication complexes and have developed mechanisms to circumvent innate immune responses. Vaccines have been developed against lagoviruses and vesiviruses, and are under development against human noroviruses.

Keywords: Bavovirus; Lagovirus; Nebovirus; Norovirus; Recovirus; Sapovirus; Valovirus; Vesivirus; animal models; enteroids; reverse genetics.

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Conflict of interest statement

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Schematic genome organization of viruses in different genera of the Caliciviridae. (A) The long ORF encodes a polyprotein consisting of seven mostly non-structural proteins (ORF1) and 2–3 structural proteins (ORF2–ORF4). (B) NS3 encodes an NTPase, NS5 the VPg (a structural protein), NS6 a protease, NS7 the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). NS1, NS2 (NS1 + NS2 are also called N-Term), and NS4 have functions in the formation of membranes of the viral replication sites and interact with proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum [32,33]. (C) For Norovirus and Vesivirus ORF2 encodes the major structural protein VP1 (for Vesivirus including a precursor N-terminal leader protein (LC). For Sapovirus, Lagovirus, and Nebovirus the VP1 is derived from the C-terminus of ORF1. ORF2 or ORF3 encode VP2, and ORF4 encodes a protein which has been identified as virulence factor 1 (VF1) for MuNoV. The Nacovirus [28,29], Minovirus [31], and Salovirus [30] genomes have structures as shown in panel C for Lagovirus, Nebovirus, Sapovirus, and Valovirus. From references [24,28,29,30,31], with permission of authors and publisher.
Figure 2
Figure 2
Pairwise distance distribution histogram of complete VP1 genes of 59 sapoviruses. The peaks of 0–0.159, 0.198–0.471, and 0.522–0.807 correspond to the distance range of strains, genotypes, and genogroups, respectively. The cut-off values for genotype and genogroup clusters were <0.169 and <0.488, respectively, and are indicated by vertical dashed lines. From reference [37], with permission of authors and publisher.
Figure 3
Figure 3
Phylogenetic tree based on nucleotide sequences of complete calicivirus genomes differentiating Valovirus as a separate genus. The tree was constructed by the neighbour-joining method MEGA 3.1. The confidence values at the branch points are based on 1000 bootstrap analyses. The calibration bar indicates distance expressed as nt substitutions per site. Abbreviations: BEC-NB, bovine enteric calicivirus NB/80/US; BEC-Newbury, bovine enteric calicivirus Newbury; EBHSV-GD, European brown hare syndrome virus GD strain; FCV, feline calicivirus; Jena, bovine enteric norovirus strain Jena; Manchester, human sapovirus Manchester; MNV-1, mouse norovirus 1; Norwalk, Norwalk virus; PEC, porcine enteric calicivirus; RHDV-FRG, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus Germany; SMSV, San Miguel Sea Lion Virus; Tulane, Tulane virus; and St Valérien, St Valérien strains AB90, AB104, F15-10. From reference [25], with permission of authors and publisher.
Figure 4
Figure 4
Phylogenetic relationship between the Nacovirus genus and other genera of the Caliciviridae, based on full length amino acid sequences of VP1, the major capsid protein. The calibration bar indicates genetic distance. Abbreviations: CaCv, canine calicivirus; ChCV, chicken calicivirus Bavaria; Ch-F10026n, chicken calicivirus F10026n; CV-2117, calicivirus 2117; EBHSV, European brown hare syndrome virus; FCV, feline calicivirus; GoCV, goose calicivirus; MCV, mink calicivirus; Newbury1, Newbury-1 virus; NoV, norovirus; RHDV, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus; SaV, sapovirus; St Valérien, St Valérien virus; TuCV, turkey calicivirus; TulaV, Tulane virus; VESV, vesicular exanthema of swine virus. From reference [29], with permission of authors and publisher.
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