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Review
. 2015 Jan;28(1):32-53.
doi: 10.1128/CMR.00011-14.

Comprehensive review of human sapoviruses

Tomoichiro Oka  1 , Qiuhong Wang  2 , Kazuhiko Katayama  3 , Linda J Saif  4
Affiliations
Review

Comprehensive review of human sapoviruses

Tomoichiro Oka et al. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2015 Jan.

Abstract

Sapoviruses cause acute gastroenteritis in humans and animals. They belong to the genus Sapovirus within the family Caliciviridae. They infect and cause disease in humans of all ages, in both sporadic cases and outbreaks. The clinical symptoms of sapovirus gastroenteritis are indistinguishable from those caused by noroviruses, so laboratory diagnosis is essential to identify the pathogen. Sapoviruses are highly diverse genetically and antigenically. Currently, reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) assays are widely used for sapovirus detection from clinical specimens due to their high sensitivity and broad reactivity as well as the lack of sensitive assays for antigen detection or cell culture systems for the detection of infectious viruses. Sapoviruses were first discovered in 1976 by electron microscopy in diarrheic samples of humans. To date, sapoviruses have also been detected from several animals: pigs, mink, dogs, sea lions, and bats. In this review, we focus on genomic and antigenic features, molecular typing/classification, detection methods, and clinical and epidemiological profiles of human sapoviruses.

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Figures

FIG 1
FIG 1
Transmission electron micrographs of sapovirus and norovirus particles from clinical samples. Scale bars indicate 100 nm. (Courtesy of Yasutaka Yamashita, Ehime Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environmental Science, Japan.)
FIG 2
FIG 2
Diagram of sapovirus genomic organization and the RT-PCR target regions for human sapoviruses based on the GI.1 Manchester strain (GenBank accession no. X86560). A schematic diagram of the sapovirus genomic organization, including the putative subgenomic transcript, two common open reading frames (ORF1 and ORF2), the predicted viral nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2, NS3 [NTPase], NS4, NS5 [VPg], and NS6-NS7 [protease–RNA-dependent RNA polymerase {RdRp}]), and structural proteins VP1 and VP2 is shown. The putative cleavage sites in the ORF polyprotein and their predicted sizes are indicated, according to previous reports (37, 41, 42, 49–51, 55, 272). Typical amino acid motifs for NS3 (GAPGIGKT), NS5 (KGKTK and DDEYDE), NS6 (GDCG), NS7 (WKGL, KDEL, DYSKWDST, GLPSG, and YGDD) and VP1 (PPG and GWS) are also shown. An overview of the RT-PCR target regions (RdRp region, RdRp-VP1 junction region, and VP1 region) is shown, and the detailed primer information is summarized in Tables 2 to 4. The putative first amino acids of VP1 from subgenomic transcript “MEG” and the cleavage site of this motif (ME/G; the slash indicates the cleavage site) from the ORF1 polyprotein are also shown with their nucleotide positions. The putative NS7 (RdRp) region and the cleavage site between RdRp and VP1 are based on previous reports (50, 52, 55, 58). The proposed subdomains in the sapovirus VP1 from the subgenomic transcript (N-terminal variable region [NVR] [1 to 43]), N-terminal region [N] [44 to 285]), central variable region [CVR] [286 to 441]), and C-terminal region [C] [442 to 561]) (47) are also indicated.
FIG 3
FIG 3
Pairwise distance distribution histograms of 59 representative sapovirus complete VP1 sequences. The vertical dashed lines indicate the cutoff limits for genogrouping and/or genotyping. (A) Limits based on nucleotide sequences, with three peaks (0 to 0.159, 0.198 to 0.471, and 0.522 to 0.807) corresponding to the strain, genotype, and genogroup range, respectively. The mean values ± 3 SD for the pairwise distance peaks were 0 to 0.151, 0.170 to 0.416, and 0.489 to 0.801, and the cutoff values for the genotype and genogroup clusters were designated ≤0.169 and ≤0.488, respectively. (B) Limits based on amino acid sequences, with two major peaks (0 to 0.480 and 0.652 to 1.115) corresponding to the strain and genogroup range, respectively.
FIG 4
FIG 4
Genogroup and genotypes of GI, GII, GIII, GIV, and GV sapovirus strains based on complete VP1 nucleotide sequences. The phylogenetic tree is based on the complete VP1 nucleotide sequences (approximately 1,690 nt) of a total of 59 sapovirus strains (representing 58 sapovirus strains corresponding to all genotypes within GI, GII, GIV, and GV and one porcine strain representing GIII). The phylogenetic tree was constructed by the neighbor-joining method with 1,000 bootstrap replications using NJPlot software (http://pbil.univ-lyon1.fr/software/njplot.html) (273). The numbers on each branch indicate the bootstrap values of ≥950. The scale represents the nucleotide substitutions per site. Each sapovirus strain is indicated as genogroup/genotype-GenBank accession number-strain name (i.e., GI.1-U65427-Sapporo). Genotyping numbers are updated based on a recent classification scheme (87). Genotyping numbers from three other reports (46, 47, 96) are summarized for comparison.
FIG 5
FIG 5
Comparative phylogenetic analysis of sapoviruses based on complete RdRp and VP1 nucleotide sequences. Phylogenetic trees of 27 sapovirus strains (10 GI, 5 GII, 5 GIV, and 6 GV strains and 1 representative GIII strain) whose sequences covering the putative complete RdRp to the end of VP1 had been available at GenBank (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/) by 1 September 2013 are shown. The trees on the left and right are based on the nucleotide sequences of the putative complete RdRp region (approximately 1,570 nt) and the entire VP1 region (approximately 1,690 nt), respectively. The phylogenetic trees were constructed by the neighbor-joining method with 1,000 bootstrap replications using NJPlot software. The numbers on each branch indicate the bootstrap values of ≥950. The scale represents the nucleotide substitutions per site. The sapovirus strains showing inconsistent clustering patterns on the two trees are indicated within dashed boxes.
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