Following the demonstration that transplant tolerance could be induced in non-human primate recipients treated with non-myeloablative conditioning that resulted in only transient chimerism, we began in 1998 to evaluate this approach first in patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD), secondary to multiple myeloma (MM). A total of 10 patients with ESRD and MM have been treated with this initial protocol. Only 2 recipients developed evidence of reversible renal allograft rejection after stopping immunosuppression. Long-term (up to 14 years) operational renal allograft tolerance has been observed in all 10 patients, even in those with transient hematopoietic chimerism. Control of the MM has been less complete, as recurrent disease developed in five of these patients, three of whom expired. Nevertheless, in view of the essentially 100% 3-5 year mortality typically expected with alternative treatments for this challenging population, it has been suggested that combined kidney and donor bone marrow transplantation (CKBMT) following non-myeloablative conditioning should become the standard therapy for patients with ESRD secondary to MM (27). These encouraging results, as well as the acceptable morbidity observed in cancer patients receiving non-myeloablative human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-mismatched bone marrow transplantation in our center, led us to next evaluate CKBMT in 10 patients of HLA-mismatched transplants. All 10 subjects developed transient chimerism and in seven of these, immunosuppression was successfully discontinued. Four subjects continue to be immunosuppression free for periods of 4.5-11 years, while in three, reinstitution of immunosuppression was advised or accomplished after 5-8 years due to recurrence of original disease or chronic antibody mediated rejection. Donor-specific antibodies were frequently detectable in the earlier recipients. In contrast, no donor-specific antibodies were detected after immunosuppression was discontinued in the last four subjects, who showed more consistent and durable B-cell depletion. In conclusion, our studies have shown that immunosuppression-free renal allograft survival can be achieved in both HLAmatched and mismatched donor-recipient pairs, with follow up times now of greater than 14 years after induction of transient chimerism through CKBMT.