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Review
. 2011 Jul 6;2011(7):CD008122.
doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008122.pub2.

Rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosing uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria in endemic countries

Katharine Abba  1 , Jonathan J Deeks, Piero Olliaro, Cho-Min Naing, Sally M Jackson, Yemisi Takwoingi, Sarah Donegan, Paul Garner
Affiliations
Review

Rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosing uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria in endemic countries

Katharine Abba et al. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. .

Abstract

Background: Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) for Plasmodium falciparum malaria use antibodies to detect either HRP-2 antigen or pLDH antigen, and can improve access to diagnostics in developing countries.

Objectives: To assess the diagnostic accuracy of RDTs for detecting P. falciparum parasitaemia in persons living in endemic areas who present to ambulatory healthcare facilities with symptoms suggestive of malaria by type and brand.

Search strategy: We undertook a comprehensive search of the following databases: Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register; MEDLINE; EMBASE; MEDION; Science Citation Index; Web of Knowledge; African Index Medicus; LILACS; IndMED; to January 14, 2010.

Selection criteria: Studies comparing RDTs with a reference standard (microscopy or polymerase chain reaction) in blood samples from a random or consecutive series of patients attending ambulatory health facilities with symptoms suggestive of malaria in P. falciparum endemic areas.

Data collection and analysis: For each study, a standard set of data was extracted independently by two authors, using a tailored data extraction form. Comparisons were grouped hierarchically by target antigen, and type and brand of RDT, and combined in meta-analysis where appropriate.

Main results: We identified 74 unique studies as eligible for this review and categorized them according to the antigens they detected. Types 1 to 3 include HRP-2 (from P. falciparum) either by itself or with other antigens. Types 4 and 5 included pLDH (from P. falciparum) either by itself or with other antigens. In comparisons with microscopy, we identified 71 evaluations of Type 1 tests, eight evaluations of Type 2 tests and five evaluations of Type 3 tests. In meta-analyses, average sensitivities and specificities (95% CI) were 94.8% (93.1% to 96.1%) and 95.2% (93.2% to 96.7%) for Type 1 tests, 96.0% (94.0% to 97.3%) and 95.3% (87.3% to 98.3%) for Type 2 tests, and 99.5% (71.0% to 100.0%) and 90.6% (80.5% to 95.7%) for Type 3 tests, respectively. Overall for HRP-2, the meta-analytical average sensitivity and specificity (95% CI) were 95.0% (93.5% to 96.2%) and 95.2% (93.4% to 99.4%), respectively. For pLDH antibody-based RDTs verified with microscopy, we identified 17 evaluations of Type 4 RDTs and three evaluations of Type 5 RDTs. In meta-analyses, average sensitivity for Type 4 tests was 91.5% (84.7% to 95.3%) and average specificity was 98.7% (96.9% to 99.5%). For Type 5 tests, average sensitivity was 98.4% (95.1% to 99.5%) and average specificity was 97.5% (93.5% to 99.1%). Overall for pLDH, the meta-analytical average sensitivity and specificity (95% CI) were 93.2% (88.0% to 96.2%) and 98.5% (96.7% to 99.4%), respectively. For both categories of test, there was substantial heterogeneity in study results. Quality of the microscopy reference standard could only be assessed in 40% of studies due to inadequate reporting, but results did not seem to be influenced by the reporting quality.Overall, HRP-2 antibody-based tests (such as the Type 1 tests) tended to be more sensitive and were significantly less specific than pLDH-based tests (such as the Type 4 tests). If the point estimates for Type 1 and Type 4 tests are applied to a hypothetical cohort of 1000 patients where 30% of those presenting with symptoms have P. falciparum, Type 1 tests will miss 16 cases, and Type 4 tests will miss 26 cases. The number of people wrongly diagnosed with P. falciparum would be 34 with Type 1 tests, and nine with Type 4 tests.

Authors' conclusions: The sensitivity and specificity of all RDTs is such that they can replace or extend the access of diagnostic services for uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria. HRP-2 antibody types may be more sensitive but are less specific than pLDH antibody-based tests, but the differences are small. The HRP-2 antigen persists even after effective treatment and so is not useful for detecting treatment failures.

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Conflict of interest statement

There are no known conflicts of interest.

Figures

1
1
Example map showing P. falciparum malaria endemicities and study locations
2
2
Methodological quality graph: review authors' judgements about each methodological quality item presented as percentages across all included studies.
3
3
Study results of Type 1 RDTs plotted in ROC space (by RDT brand)
4
4
Forest plot of study results of Type 2, 3 and 5 RDTs (by RDT brand)
5
5
Study results of Type 4 RDTs plotted in ROC space (by RDT brand)
6
6
Summary ROC Plot comparing different RDT types verified with microscopy (points are meta‐analytical estimates, regions are 95% confidence regions, no regions could be computed for Type 2 and 5 due to small numbers of studies)
7
7
Summary ROC Plot comparing HRP‐2‐based and pLDH‐based RDTs across all studies verified with microscopy (points are meta‐analytical estimates, regions are 95% confidence regions)
8
8
Summary estimates of Type 1 RDTs plotted in ROC space (by RDT brand)
9
9
Summary estimates of Type 4 RDTs plotted in ROC space (by RDT brand)
10
10
Study results of Type 2, 3 and 5 RDTs plotted in ROC space (by RDT brand)
11
11
Summary estimates of Type 2 RDTs and study results plotted in ROC space (by RDT brand)
12
12
Summary estimates of Type 3 RDTs and study results plotted in ROC space
13
13
Summary estimates of Type 5 RDTs and study results plotted in ROC space
14
14
Paired comparison of Type 1 and Type 4 RDTs. Connecting lines link the direct comparison of pairs of tests in each study.
15
15
Paired comparison of HRP‐2‐based tests and pLDH‐based tests. Connecting lines link the direct comparison of pairs of tests in each study.
1
1. Test
Paracheck‐Pf.
2
2. Test
ParaSight‐F.
3
3. Test
ICT Malaria Pf.
4
4. Test
ParaHIT‐F.
5
5. Test
PATH.
6
6. Test
Determine Malaria Pf.
7
7. Test
Rapid Test Malaria.
8
8. Test
Diaspot Malaria.
9
9. Test
New Pf‐1 mini.
10
10. Test
Hexagon Malaria.
11
11. Test
Type 1 (All).
12
12. Test
CareStart Malaria Pf/Pan.
13
13. Test
ICT Malaria Pf/Pv.
14
14. Test
NOW malaria ICT.
15
15. Test
Type 2 (All).
16
16. Test
SD Malaria Antigen Bioline.
17
17. Test
First Response Malaria.
18
18. Test
OptiMAL/ OptiMAL 48.
19
19. Test
Parascreen.
20
20. Test
Type 3 (All).
21
21. Test
OptiMAL‐IT.
22
22. Test
Parabank.
23
23. Test
Type 4 (All).
24
24. Test
Carestart Pf/Pv.
25
25. Test
ParaSight Pf/Pv.
26
26. Test
Type 5 (All).
27
27. Test
HRP‐2 based tests.
28
28. Test
pLDH based tests.
29
29. Test
Type 1 (paired comparison with Type 4).
30
30. Test
Type 4 (paired comparison with Type 1).
31
31. Test
PCR adjusted microscopy, Type 1, Paracheck‐PF (All).
32
32. Test
PCR adjusted microscopy, Type 4, Parabank (All).
33
33. Test
PCR, Type 1, ParaSight‐F.
34
34. Test
PCR, Type 1, ParaHIT‐F.
35
35. Test
PCR, Type 1 (All).
36
36. Test
PCR, Type 3, SD Malaria Antigen (All).
37
37. Test
HRP‐2 based tests paired data.
38
38. Test
pLDH based tests paired data.
71
71. Test
PCR, Type 6, PALUTOP (All).
72
72. Test
PCR, Type 4, OptiMAL‐IT (All).
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References

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Pattanasin 2003 {published data only}
    1. Pattanasin S, Proux S, Chompasuk D, Luwiradaj K, Jacquier P, Looareesuwan, et al. Evaluation of a new plasmodium lactate dehydrogenase assay (OptiMAL‐IT) for the detection of malaria. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2003;97:672‐4. - PubMed
Rakotonirina 2008 {published data only}
    1. Rakotonirina H, Barnadas C, Raherijafy R, Andrianantenaina H, Ratsimbasoa A, Randrianasolo L, et al. Accuracy and reliability of malaria diagnostic techniques for guiding febrile outpatient treatment in malaria‐endemic countries. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2008;78(2):217‐21. - PubMed
Ratsimbasoa 2007 {published data only}
    1. Ratsimbasoa A, Randriamanantena A, Raherinjafy R, Rasoarilalao N, Menard D. Which malaria rapid test for Madagascar? Field and laboratory evaluation of three test and expert microscopy of samples from suspected malaria patients in Madagascar. American Journal Of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2007;76(3):481‐5. - PubMed
Ratsimbasoa 2008 {published data only}
    1. Ratsimbasoa A, Fanazava L, Radrianjafy R, Ramilijaona J, Rafanomezantsoa H, Menard D. Short report: Evaluation of two new immunochromatographic assays for diagnosis of malaria. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2008;79(5):670‐2. - PubMed
Sayang 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sayang C, Soula G, Tahar R, Basco LK, Gazin P, Moyou‐Somo R, et al. Use of a histidine‐rich protein 2‐based rapid diagnostic test for malaria by health personnel during routine consultation of febrile outpatients in a peripheral health facility in Yaounde, Cameroon. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2009;81(2):343‐7. - PubMed
Sharew 2009 {published data only}
    1. Sharew B, Legesse M, Animut A, Jima D, Medhim G, Erkko B. Evaluation of the performance of CareStart Malaria Pf/Pv Combo and Paracheck Pf tests for the diagnosis of malaria in Wondo Genet, southern Ethiopia. Acta Tropica 2009;111:321‐4. - PubMed
Sharma 1999 {published data only}
    1. Sharma SK, Tyagi PK, Haque MA, Padhan K. Field studies on the sensitivity and specificity of an immunochromatographic test for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in tribal areas of Orissa. Indian Journal of Malariology 1999;36:65‐9. - PubMed
Singh 1997 (a) {published data only}
    1. Singh N, Valecha N, Sharma VP. Malaria diagnosis by field workers using an immunochromatographic test. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1997;91:396‐7. - PubMed
Singh 1997 (b) {published data only}
    1. Singh N, Singh MP, Sharma VP. The use of a dipstick antigen‐capture assay for the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum infection in a remote forested area of Central India. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1997;56(2):188‐91. - PubMed
Singh 2000 (a) {published data only}
    1. Singh N, Valecha N. Evaluation of a rapid diagnostic test, 'Determine malaria pf', in epidemic‐prone, forest villages of central India. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2000;94(5):421‐7. - PubMed
Singh 2000 (c) {published data only}
    1. Singh N, Saxena A, Valecha N. Field evaluation of the ICT Malaria Pf/Pv immunochromatographic test for diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum and P vivax infection in forest villages in Chhindwara, central India . Tropical Medicine and International Health 2000;5(11):765‐70. - PubMed
Singh 2003a {published data only}
    1. Singh N, Valecha N, Nagpal AC, Mishra SS, Varma HS, Subbaro SK. The hospital and field‐based performances of the OptiMAL tests, for malaria diagnosis and treatment monitoring in central India. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2003;97(1):5‐13. - PubMed
Singh 2003b {published data only}
    1. Singh N, Valecha N, Nagpal AC, Mishra SS, Varma HS, Subbaro SK. The hospital and field‐based performances of the OptiMAL tests, for malaria diagnosis and treatment monitoring in central India. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2003;97(1):5‐13. - PubMed
Stephens 1999 {published data only}
    1. Stephens JK, Phanart K, Rooney W, Barnish G. A comparison of three malaria diagnostic tests, under field conditions in North‐West Thailand. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 1999;30(4):625‐30. - PubMed
Stow 1999 {published data only}
    1. Stow NW, Torrens JK, Walker J. An assessment of the accuracy of clinical diagnosis, local microscopy and a rapid immunochromatographic card test in comparison with expert microscopy in the diagnosis of malaria in rural Kenya. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1999;93:519‐20. - PubMed
Tagbo 2007 {published data only}
    1. Tagbo O, Henrietta UO. Compariaons of clinical, microscopic and rapid diagnostic test methods in the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Enugu, Nigeria. Nigerian Postgradulate Medical Journal 2007;14(4):285‐9. - PubMed
Tjitra 1999 {published data only}
    1. Tjitra E, Suprianto S, Dyer M, Currie BJ, Anstey NM. Field evaluation of the ICT malaria Pf/Pv immunochromatographic test in detection of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax in patients with a presumptive clinical diagnosis of malaria in Eastern Indonesia . Journal of Clinical Microbiology 1999;37(8):2412‐7. - PMC - PubMed
Valecha 2003 {published data only}
    1. Valecha N, Singh N, Yadav RS, Dev V, Aggarwal A, Subbarao SK. Field evaluation of OptiMAL48 rapid malaria diagnostic test in India. Acta Parasitologica 2003;48(3):229‐32.
Van den Broek 2006 {published data only}
    1. Broek I, Hill O, Gordillo F, Angarita B, Hamade P, Counihan H, et al. Evaluation of three rapid tests for diagnosis of P falciparum and P vivax malaria in Colombia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2006;75(6):1209‐15. - PubMed
Verle 1996 {published data only}
    1. Verle P, Binh LN, Lieu TT, Yen PT, Coosemans M. ParaSight‐F test to diagnose malaria in hypoendemic and epidemic prone regions of Vietnam. Tropical Medicine and International Health 1996;6:794‐6. - PubMed
Willcox 2009a {published data only}
    1. Willcox ML, Sanogo F, Graz B, Forster M, Dakouo F, Sidibe O, et al. Rapid diagnostic tests for the home‐based management of malaria, in a high‐transmission area. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2009;103(1):3‐16. - PubMed
Willcox 2009b {published data only}
    1. Willcox ML, Sanogo F, Graz B, Forster M, Dakouo F, Sidibe O, et al. Rapid diagnostic tests for the home‐based management of malaria, in a high‐transmission area. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 2009;103(1):3‐16. - PubMed
Wolday 2001 {published data only}
    1. Wolday D, Balca F, Fessehaye G, Birku Y, Shepherd A. Field trial of the RTM dipstick method for the rapid diagnosis of malaria based on the detection of Plasmodium falciparum HRP‐2 antigen in whole blood. Tropical Doctor 2001;31:18‐21. - PubMed
Wongsrichanalai 1999 {published data only}
    1. Wongsrichanalai C, Chuanak N, Tulyayon S, Thanoosingha N, Laoboonchai A, Thimasarn K. Comparison of a rapid field immunochromatographic test to expert microscopy for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum asexual parasitemia in Thailand. Acta Tropica 1999;73(3):263‐73. - PubMed
Wongsrichanalai 2003 {published data only}
    1. Wongrichalanai G, Arevalo I, Laoboonchai A, Yingyuen K, Miller RS, Magill AJ, et al. Rapid diagnostic devices for malaria: field evaluation of a new prototype immunochromatographic assay for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum and non‐falciparum plasmodium. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygeine 2003;69(1):26‐30. - PubMed
Yadav 1997 {published data only}
    1. Yadav RS, Sharma VP, Srivastava HC. Field evaluation of an antigen detection immunochromatographic test for diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in India. Tropical Medicine 1997;39(2):45‐9.

References to studies excluded from this review

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Arrospide 2004 (a) {published data only}
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Arrospide 2006 {published data only}
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Aslan 2001 {published data only}
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Azazy 2004 {published data only}
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Babacar 2008 {published data only}
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Bartoloni 1998 {published data only}
    1. Bartoloni A, Strohmeyer M, Sabatinelli G, Benucci M, Serni U, Paradisi F. False positive ParaSight‐F test for malaria in patients with rheumatoid factor. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1998;92:33‐4. - PubMed
Bassene 2009 {published data only}
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Bassett 1991 {published data only}
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Beadle 1994 {published data only}
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Beg 2005 {published data only}
    1. Beg MA, Ali SS, Haqqee R, Khan MA, Qasim Z, Hussain R, et al. Rapid immunochromatography‐based detection of mixed‐species malaria infection in Pakistan. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 2005;36(3):562‐4. - PubMed
Belizario 2005 {published data only}
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Bell 2005 {published data only}
    1. Bell DR, Wilson DW, Martin LB. False‐positive results of a Plasmodium falciparum histidine‐rich protein 2‐detecting malaria rapid diagnostic test due to high sensitivity in a community with fluctuating low parasite density. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2005;73(1):199‐203. - PubMed
Bell 2006 {published data only}
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Bellagra 1998 {published data only}
    1. Bellagra N, Ajana F, Caillaux M. ParaSight F in the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Pathologie Biologie 1998;46(5):301‐6. - PubMed
Bendezu 2008 {published data only}
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Berens‐Riha 2009 {published data only}
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Bhatt 1994 {published data only}
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Birku 1999 {published data only}
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Bisoffi 2009 {published data only}
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Bisoffi 2009a {published data only}
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Biswas 2006 {published data only}
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Bouchaud 2000 {published data only}
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Brenier‐Pinchart 2000 {published data only}
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Bruxvoort 2008 {published data only}
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Bualombai 2003 {published data only}
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Bualombai 2006 {published data only}
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Buchachart 2004 {published data only}
    1. Buchachart K, Krudsood S, Nacher M, Chindanond D, Rungmatcha P, Kano S, et al. Evaluation of the KAT‐Quick Malaria Rapid Test for rapid diagnosis of falciparum malaria in Thailand. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 35;1:35‐7. - PubMed
Bujanover 2002 {published data only}
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Cabezas 2004 {published data only}
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Cavallo 1997 {published data only}
    1. Cavallo JD, Hernandez E, Gerome P, Plotton N, Debord T, Vagueresse R. Serum HRP‐2 antigens and imported Plasmodium falciparum malaria: comparison of ParaSight‐F and ICT malaria P. Medecine Tropicale 1997;57:353‐6. - PubMed
Chatterjee 2008 {published data only}
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Cheng 2006 {published data only}
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Chilton 2006 {published data only}
    1. Chilton D, Malik ANJ, Armstrong M, Kettelhut M, Parker‐Williams J, Chiodini PL. Use of rapid diagnostic tests for diagnosis of malaria in the UK. Journal of Clinical Pathology 2006;59(8):862‐866. - PMC - PubMed
Chiodini 1998 {published data only}
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Chiodini 2005 {published data only}
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Cho 2001 {published data only}
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Coleman 2002a {published data only}
    1. Coleman RE, Maneechai N, Ponlawat A, Kumpitak C, Rachapaew N, Miller RS, Sattabongkot J. Short report: Failure of the OptiMAL rapid malaria test as a tool for the detection of asymptomatic malaria in an area of Thailand endemic for Plasmodium falciparum and P vivax. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2002;67(6):563‐5. - PubMed
Coleman 2002b {published data only}
    1. Coleman RE, Maneechai N, Rachapaew N, Kumpitak C, Soyseng V, Miller R S, et al. Field evaluation of the ICT Malaria Pf/Pv immunochromatographic test for the detection of asymptomatic malaria in a Plasmodium falciparum/ vivax endemic area in Thailand. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2002;66(4):379‐83. - PubMed
Cong Le 2002 {published data only}
    1. Cong Le D, Sergiev VP, Rabinovich SA, Nhah DH, Huong NV, Morozov EN, et al. Efficiency and specificity of the KAT‐test for rapid diagnosis of falciparum malaria. Meditsinskaia Parazitologiia i Parazitarnye Bolezni 2002;2:17‐20. - PubMed
Craig 1997 {published data only}
    1. Craig MH, Sharp BL. Comparative evaluation of four techniques for the diagnosis of Plasmodium falciparum infections. Transactions of the Royal Society and Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1997;91:279‐82. - PubMed
Craig 2002 {published data only}
    1. Craig MH, Bredenkamp BL, Williams CHV, Rossouw EJ, Kelly VJ, Kleinschmidt I, et al. Field and laboratory comparative evaluation of ten rapid malaria diagnostic tests. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2002;96:258‐65. - PubMed
Cropley 2000 {published data only}
    1. Cropley IM, Lockwood DN, Mack D, Pasvol G, Davidson R.N. Rapid diagnosis of Falciparum malaria by using the ParaSight F test in travellers returning to the United Kingdom: prospective study. British Medical Journal 2000;321(7259):484‐5. - PMC - PubMed
Cuadros 2007 {published data only}
    1. Cuadros J, Martin‐Rabadan P, Merino FJ, Delgado‐Irribarren A, Garcia‐Bujalance S, Rubio JM. Malaria diagnosis by NOW ICT and expert microscopy in comparison with multiplex polymerase chain reaction in febrile returned travellers. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 2007;26(9):671‐3. - PubMed
De Carsalade 2009 {published data only}
    1. Carsalade GY, Lam Kam R, Lepere JF, Brettes A, Peyramond D. Can the thick drop/smear examination for malaria be replaced by a rapid diagnostic test in first intention? The Mayotte experience. Medecine et Maladies Infectieuses 2009;39:36‐40. - PubMed
De Dominguez 1996 {published data only}
    1. Dominguez N, Rodriguez‐Acosta A. Glutamate dehydrogenase antigen detection in Plasmodium falciparum infections. Korean Journal of Parasitology 1996;34(4):239‐246. - PubMed
De Monbrison 2004 {published data only}
    1. Monbrison F, Gerome P, Chaulet JF, Wallon M, Picot S, Peyron F. Comparative diagnostic performance of two commercial rapid tests for malaria in a non‐endemic area. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 2004;23(10):784‐6. - PubMed
Delaunay 2008 {published data only}
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Deletoille 1987 {published data only}
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Di Perry 1997 {published data only}
    1. Perry G, Olliaro P, Nardi S, Allegranzi B, Deganello R, Vento S, et al. The Parasight‐F rapid dipstick antigen capture assay for monitoring parasite clearance after drug treatment for Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1997;91:403‐5. - PubMed
Dietze 1995 {published data only}
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Drakeley 2009 {published data only}
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Dubarry 1990 {published data only}
    1. Dubarry M, Luilier M, Malot N, Bayard P, Lambin P, Prou O. Enzyme immunoassays for detection of malarial antigens in human plasma by Plasmodium falciparum monoclonal antibodies. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1990;43(2):116‐23. - PubMed
Durand 2005 {published data only}
    1. Durand F, Crassous B, Fricker‐Hidalgo H, Carpentier F, Brion JP, Grillot R, et al. Performance of the Now Malaria rapid diagnostic test with returned travellers: a 2‐year retrospective study in a French teaching hospital. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2007;11(11):903‐7. - PubMed
Durand 2005a {published data only}
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Dyer 2000 {published data only}
    1. Dyer ME, Tjitra E, Currie BJ, Anstey NM. Failure of the ‘pan‐malarial’ antibody of the ICT Malaria P.f/P.v immunochromatographic test to detect symptomatic Plasmodium malariae infection. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2000;94(5):518. - PubMed
Eisen 2000 {published data only}
    1. Eisen DP, Saul A. Disappearance of pan‐malarial antigen reactivity using the ICT Malaria P.f/P.v (TM) kit parallels decline of patent parasitaemia as shown by microscopy. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2000;94:169‐70. - PubMed
El‐Moamly 2007 {published data only}
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Elmardi 2009 {published data only}
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Endeshaw 2008 {published data only}
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Kakkilaya 2003 {published data only}
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Mendoza 2007 {published data only}
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