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Multilateral Non-proliferation Export Controls

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Contemporary Export Control Law of China

Part of the book series: Modern China and International Economic Law ((CIEL))

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Abstract

As far as policies are concerned, a given State controls exports for the purpose of non-proliferation, national security, anti-terrorism, and sometimes human right protection. For export controls based on non-proliferation considerations, national laws of a given State normally adopt the control mechanism and control lists of such multinational non-proliferation regimes.

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Notes

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    Oxford Research Group. (1993). Strengthening the Non-Proliferation Regime: 1995 and Beyond. Current Decision Report, No. 13, 11.

  2. 2.

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  4. 4.

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    The China White Paper of Export Controls.

  6. 6.

    China Atomic Energy Authority. (2003, December 3). Full text of China white paper on non-proliferation policy and measures. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.caea.gov.cn/english/n6759377/c6792767/content.html.

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    Chen, X. L. (2000). Analysis of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime: A Case Study of the International Security Regime. International Politics and Security, No. 8, 36.

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    Grossi, R. M. (2021, December). The NPT and the IAEA’s critical role in steering nuclear toward peaceful uses. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/bulletin/the-npt-and-the-iaeas-critical-role-in-steering-nuclear-towards-peaceful-uses.

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    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT). United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/npt/.

  11. 11.

    Article 9 of the NPT defines “a nuclear-weapon State”: For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. See Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), https://disarmament.unoda.org/wmd/nuclear/npt/text.

  12. 12.

    Article 9 of the NPT.

  13. 13.

    Article 1 of the NPT.

  14. 14.

    Article 2 of the NPT.

  15. 15.

    Article 4(1) of the NPT.

  16. 16.

    Article 4(2) of the NPT.

  17. 17.

    Article 3 of the NPT.

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  19. 19.

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    Article 3 of the NPT.

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  22. 22.

    Article 3(1) of the NPT.

  23. 23.

    International Atomic Energy Agency. (n.d.). Safeguards agreements. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/topics/safeguards-agreements.

  24. 24.

    Article 3(2) of the NPT.

  25. 25.

    Article 12 Agency Safeguards of the Statute of the IAEA. Retrieved October 31, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/statute.pdf.

  26. 26.

    Zangger Committee. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2023, from http://zanggercommittee.org/

  27. 27.

    IAEA Information Circular, Communication dated 18 February 2020 received from the Permanent Mission of Denmark regarding the Export of Nuclear Material and of Certain Categories of Equipment and Other Material, Retrieved October 31, 2023, from http://zanggercommittee.org/download/18.6a32cf891717bf4c02d11/1588579969571/infcirc209r5.pdf.

    According to the Communication dated 18 February 2020 received from the Permanent Mission of Denmark regarding the Export of Nuclear Material and of Certain Categories of Equipment and Other Material, the latest trigger list contains the following:

    • nuclear reactors and especially designed or prepared equipment and components therefor;

    • non-nuclear materials for reactors;

    • plants for the reprocessing of irradiated fuel elements, and equipment especially designed or prepared therefor;

    • plants for the fabrication of nuclear reactor fuel elements, and equipment especially designed or prepared therefor;

    • plants for the separation of isotopes of natural uranium, depleted uranium or special fissionable material and equipment, other than analytical instruments, especially designed or prepared therefor;

    • plants for the production or concentration of heavy water, deuterium and deuterium compounds and equipment especially designed or prepared therefor;

    • plants for the conversion of uranium and plutonium for use in the fabrication of fuel elements and the separation of uranium isotopes, and equipment especially designed or prepared therefor.

  28. 28.

    Zangger Committee. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2023, from http://zanggercommittee.org/

  29. 29.

    Information Circular. (2000, April). Communication Received from the Permanent Mission of the Netherlands on Behalf of the Member States of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc539r1.pdf.

  30. 30.

    Zangger Committee. (n.d.). Our mission. Retrieved October 31, 2023, from http://zanggercommittee.org/our-mission.html.

  31. 31.

    Frieman, W. (2004). China, Arms Control, and Nonproliferation (pp. 20–21). RoutledgeCurzon.

  32. 32.

    Medeiros, E. S. (2007). Reluctant Restraint: The Evolution of China’s Nonproliferation Policies and Practices, 1980–2004 (p. 30). Stanford University Press.

  33. 33.

    Xinhua News Service, “Envoy Tells IAEA of PRC Nuclear Stand”, FBIS Daily Report: China, November 13, 1984, p. A3.

  34. 34.

    Frieman, W. (2004). China, Arms Control, and Nonproliferation (p. 1). RoutledgeCurzon.

  35. 35.

    Wang, J. (2002). Analysis of China’s Post-Cold War Shift in Non-proliferation Policies and its Causes. Pacific Journal, No. 4, 62.

  36. 36.

    Permanent Mission of the People's Republic of China to the UN. (2022, August 8). Statement by the H. E. Amb. Li Song on Nuclear Non-Proliferation at the Tenth NPT Review Conference. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/202208/t20220810_10738604.htm.

  37. 37.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  38. 38.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  39. 39.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  40. 40.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  41. 41.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  42. 42.

    Wang, J. (2002). Analysis of China’s Post-Cold War Shift in Non-proliferation Policies and its Causes. Pacific Journal, No. 4, 62.

  43. 43.

    The Regulations on the Export Control of Nuclear were revised in November 2006.

  44. 44.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  45. 45.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  46. 46.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  47. 47.

    Order of the Commission for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, Provisions on Supervision and Administration of Nuclear Import and Export and Foreign Nuclear Cooperation Safeguards, Article 18–25.

  48. 48.

    Permanent Mission of the People's Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  49. 49.

    Information Circular. (2000, April). Communication Received from the Permanent Mission of the Netherlands on Behalf of the Member States of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc539r1.pdf.

  50. 50.

    Nuclear Suppliers Group. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2023, from https://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/en/about-nsg.

  51. 51.

    Nuclear Suppliers Group. (n.d.). Retrieved October 31, 2023, from https://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/en/about-nsg.

  52. 52.

    Nuclear Suppliers Group. (n.d.). Why was the NSG created? What are its origins? Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://nsg-online.org/en/27-faq/197-why-was-the-nsg-created-what-are-its-origins.

  53. 53.

    Information Circular. (2000, April). Communication Received from the Permanent Mission of the Netherlands on Behalf of the Member States of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc539r1.pdf.

  54. 54.

    Nuclear Suppliers Group. (n.d.). NSG Guidelines. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/en/guidelines.

  55. 55.

    Id.

  56. 56.

    Information Circular. (2000, April). Communication Received from the Permanent Mission of the Netherlands on Behalf of the Member States of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/infcirc539r1.pdf.

  57. 57.

    Nuclear Suppliers Group. (n.d.). How Does the NSG Achieve Its Aims Through the Guidelines? Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/en/nsg-faq.

  58. 58.

    Information Circular. (2022, July 29). Guidelines for Transfers of Nuclear-Related Dual-Use Equipment, Materials, Software, and Related Technology, Para 6. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/documents/infcircs/1978/infcirc254r12p2.pdf.

  59. 59.

    Id, para 5.

  60. 60.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  61. 61.

    Regulations on the Export Control of Nuclear-Related Dual-use Items and Technologies were revised in January 2007.

  62. 62.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  63. 63.

    The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. (2011, April 7). Nuclear Suppliers Group. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/wjb_673085/zfxxgk_674865/gknrlb/tywj/zcwj/200705/t20070521_9869104.shtml.

  64. 64.

    Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China to the UN. (2005, May 18). Report of China on the Implementation of NPT, New York, 2–27 May 2005. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://un.china-mission.gov.cn/eng/chinaandun/disarmament_armscontrol/npt/200505/t20050518_8412390.htm.

  65. 65.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Biological Weapons Convention. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons.

  66. 66.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). History of the Biological Weapons Convention. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons/about/history/

  67. 67.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Biological Weapons Convention. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons.

  68. 68.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Biological Weapons Convention. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons.

  69. 69.

    Statement by the Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, the Rt Hon David Hedley Ennals MP at the ceremony marking the entry into force of the Biological Weapons Convention in London on Wednesday 26 March 1975. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Ennalsstatement.pdf.

  70. 70.

    Article XII of BTWC. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/BWC-text-English-1.pdf.

  71. 71.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Lists of States Parties, Signatory States and Non-Signatory States. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons/about/membership-and-regional-groups.

  72. 72.

    Article I of BTWC.

  73. 73.

    Article III of BTWC.

  74. 74.

    Article II of BTWC.

  75. 75.

    Article IV of BTWC.

  76. 76.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). National Implementation of the Biological Weapons Convention. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/biological-weapons/national-implementation.

  77. 77.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  78. 78.

    The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://russiaembassy.fmprc.gov.cn/wjb_673085/zzjg_673183/jks_674633/zclc_674645/hwhsh_674653/200802/t20080229_7669102.shtml.

  79. 79.

    Id.

  80. 80.

    The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. (2016, November 7). Working Paper on the Establishment of a Non-proliferation Export Control and International Cooperation Mechanism for the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/wjb_673085/zzjg_673183/jks_674633/fywj_674643/201709/t20170915_7668691.shtml.

  81. 81.

    Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, 1. Chemical Weapons—their Characteristics and Properties. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cpdpsucw/cpdpsucw.html.

  82. 82.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Chemical Weapons. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/.

  83. 83.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Chemical Weapons. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/.

  84. 84.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Chemical Weapons. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/.

  85. 85.

    Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/CWC/CWC_en.pdf. According to Article II (1) of the CWC, “Chemical Weapons” means the following, together or separately:

    (a) toxic chemicals and their precursors, except where intended for purposes not prohibited under this Convention, as long as the types and quantities are consistent with such purposes;

    (b) munitions and devices, specifically designed to cause death or other harm through the toxic properties of those toxic chemicals specified in subparagraph (a), which would be released as a result of the employment of such munitions and devices;

    (c) any equipment specifically designed for use directly in connection with the employment of munitions and devices specified in subparagraph (b).

  86. 86.

    Article I (1) of CWC.

  87. 87.

    Article I (2), (3) and (4) of the CWC.

  88. 88.

    Article I (5) of the CWC.

  89. 89.

    Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Chemical Weapons. United Nations. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/.

  90. 90.

    Annex on Implementation and Verification of the CWC.

  91. 91.

    Article VII of the CWC.

  92. 92.

    Article IX of the CWC.

  93. 93.

    Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. (n.d.). Chemical Weapons Convention. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://www.opcw.org/chemical-weapons-convention.

  94. 94.

    The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://russiaembassy.fmprc.gov.cn/wjb_673085/zzjg_673183/jks_674633/zclc_674645/hwhsh_674653/200802/t20080229_7669104.shtml.

  95. 95.

    According to Article 3 of the Regulations on Controlled Chemicals, “controlled chemicals” refer to chemicals of the following four categories: chemical weapons; chemicals precursors for chemical weapons; common chemicals that could also be used as raw materials for producing chemical weapons; discrete organic chemicals other than explosives and pure hydrocarbons.

  96. 96.

    The concept of “certain chemicals” is not specifically defined under the Measures on Certain Chemicals. For details of “certain chemicals” under export control, see Chap. 3, Sect. 3.2.1.5 Certain Chemicals and Related Equipment and Technologies Export Control List.

  97. 97.

    The State Council of the People’s Republic of China. (2007, April 28). Review of the Tenth Anniversary of China’s Fulfilment of the CWC. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2007-04/28/content_599649.htm.

  98. 98.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  99. 99.

    The Arms Trade Treaty, Article 13. Retrieved October 20, 2023, from https://thearmstradetreaty.org/hyper-images/file/ATT_English/ATT_English.pdf?templateId=137253.

  100. 100.

    Article 1 of the ATT.

  101. 101.

    Ibid.

  102. 102.

    The Arms Trade Treaty, Status of Participation. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://thearmstradetreaty.org/treaty-status.html?templateId=209883.

  103. 103.

    Article 2 of the ATT.

  104. 104.

    Article 3 and 4 of the ATT.

  105. 105.

    Article 2(2) of the ATT.

  106. 106.

    Article 6 of the ATT.

  107. 107.

    Article 7 of the ATT.

  108. 108.

    Article 5 of the ATT.

  109. 109.

    Article 13 of the ATT.

  110. 110.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  111. 111.

    Article 5(3) of the ATT states as follows: Each State Party is encouraged to apply the provisions of this Treaty to the broadest range of conventional arms. National definitions of any of the categories covered under Article 2 (1) (a)–(g) shall not cover less than the descriptions used in the United Nations Register of Conventional Arms at the time of entry into force of this Treaty. For the category covered under Article 2 (1) (h), national definitions shall not cover less than the descriptions used in relevant United Nations instruments at the time of entry into force of this Treaty.

  112. 112.

    De Bruin, E. (2022). Export Control Regimes—Present-Day Challenges and Opportunities. In R. Beeres, R. Bertrand, J. Klomp, J. Timmermans, & J. Voetelink (Eds.), NL ARMS Netherlands Annual Review of Military Studies 2021. (1st ed., p. 34). T.M.C. ASSER PRESS.

  113. 113.

    Frieman, W. (2004). China, Arms Control, and Nonproliferation (p.182). RoutledgeCurzon.

  114. 114.

    Id., at 1.

  115. 115.

    Id., at 2.

  116. 116.

    MOFCOM. (2022, June 17). China Calls for Genuine Multilateralism to Address Non-Proliferation Issues. China Export Control Information. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from http://exportcontrol.mofcom.gov.cn/article/gndt/202206/662.html.

  117. 117.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  118. 118.

    Frieman, W. (2004). China, Arms Control, and Nonproliferation. (p. 3). RoutledgeCurzon.

  119. 119.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  120. 120.

    Full text of China white paper on non-proliferation policy and measures. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.caea.gov.cn/english/n6759377/c6792767/content.html.

  121. 121.

    Ibid.

  122. 122.

    The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China. (2005, September). China’s Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-proliferation Efforts. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2005-09/01/content_28157.htm.

  123. 123.

    Gao, W. (2012). Analysis of the Practice Process of China’s Participation in the Nuclear Non-proliferation Regime. International Forum, 14(3), 46–50.

  124. 124.

    The Origins of the Australia Group, The Australia Group. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/minisite/theaustraliagroupnet/site/en/origins.html.

  125. 125.

    The Australia Group: An Introduction, The Australia Group. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/minisite/theaustraliagroupnet/site/en/introduction.html.

  126. 126.

    Ibid.

  127. 127.

    Objectives of the Group, The Australia Group. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/minisite/theaustraliagroupnet/site/en/objectives.html.

  128. 128.

    Australia Group Common Control Lists, The Australia Group. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/minisite/theaustraliagroupnet/site/en/controllists.html.

  129. 129.

    Guidelines for Transfers of Sensitive Chemical or Biological Items, paragraph 2, The Australia Group. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/minisite/theaustraliagroupnet/site/en/guidelines.html.

  130. 130.

    Id., paragraph 3.

  131. 131.

    Id., paragraph 4.

  132. 132.

    Id., paragraph 5.

  133. 133.

    Id., paragraph 7.

  134. 134.

    Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. What is a Chemical Weapon?. Retrieved November 27, 2023, from https://www.opcw.org/our-work/what-chemical-weapon.

  135. 135.

    Such toxins are: Abrin, Aflatoxins, Botulinum toxins, Clostridium perfringens alpha, beta 1, beta 2, epsilon and iota toxins, Conotoxins, Diacetoxyscirpenol, HT-2 toxin, Microcystins (Cyanoginosins), Modeccin, Ricin, Saxitoxin, Shiga toxins (shiga-like toxins, verotoxins, and verocytotoxins), Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, hemolysin alpha toxin, and toxic shock syndrome toxin (formerly known as Staphylococcus enterotoxin F), T-2 toxin, Tetrodotoxin, Viscumin (Viscum album lectin 1), Volkensin, Brevetoxins, Gonyautoxins, Nodularins, and Palytoxin. See List of Human and Animal Pathogens and Toxins for Export Control, The Australia Group. Retrieved November 27, 2023, from https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/minisite/theaustraliagroupnet/site/en/human_animal_pathogens.html.

  136. 136.

    Announcement No. 42 of 2022 of the MOFCOM and the GAC, 30 December 2022.

  137. 137.

    China White Paper of Export Controls.

  138. 138.

    Biological Dual-use Items and Related Equipment and Technologies Export Control List, Controlled Chemicals List, and Certain Chemicals and Related Equipment and Technologies Export Control List.

  139. 139.

    Missile Technology Control Regime. (2017). Introduction. MTCR Annex Handbook—2017. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://mtcr.info/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/MTCR-Handbook-2017-INDEXED-FINAL-Digital.pdf.

  140. 140.

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    Deming Zhao

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Zhao, D. (2024). Multilateral Non-proliferation Export Controls. In: Contemporary Export Control Law of China. Modern China and International Economic Law. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9825-8_2

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