base/array.jl

# This file is a part of Julia. License is MIT: https://julialang.org/license

## array.jl: Dense arrays

"""
    DimensionMismatch([msg])

The objects called do not have matching dimensionality. Optional argument `msg` is a
descriptive error string.
"""
struct DimensionMismatch <: Exception
    msg::AbstractString
end
DimensionMismatch() = DimensionMismatch("")

## Type aliases for convenience ##
"""
    AbstractVector{T}

Supertype for one-dimensional arrays (or array-like types) with
elements of type `T`. Alias for [`AbstractArray{T,1}`](@ref).
"""
const AbstractVector{T} = AbstractArray{T,1}

"""
    AbstractMatrix{T}

Supertype for two-dimensional arrays (or array-like types) with
elements of type `T`. Alias for [`AbstractArray{T,2}`](@ref).
"""
const AbstractMatrix{T} = AbstractArray{T,2}

"""
    AbstractVecOrMat{T}

Union type of [`AbstractVector{T}`](@ref) and [`AbstractMatrix{T}`](@ref).
"""
const AbstractVecOrMat{T} = Union{AbstractVector{T}, AbstractMatrix{T}}
const RangeIndex = Union{Int, AbstractRange{Int}, AbstractUnitRange{Int}}
const DimOrInd = Union{Integer, AbstractUnitRange}
const IntOrInd = Union{Int, AbstractUnitRange}
const DimsOrInds{N} = NTuple{N,DimOrInd}
const NeedsShaping = Union{Tuple{Integer,Vararg{Integer}}, Tuple{OneTo,Vararg{OneTo}}}

"""
    Array{T,N} <: AbstractArray{T,N}

`N`-dimensional dense array with elements of type `T`.
"""
Array

"""
    Vector{T} <: AbstractVector{T}

One-dimensional dense array with elements of type `T`, often used to represent
a mathematical vector. Alias for [`Array{T,1}`](@ref).
"""
const Vector{T} = Array{T,1}

"""
    Matrix{T} <: AbstractMatrix{T}

Two-dimensional dense array with elements of type `T`, often used to represent
a mathematical matrix. Alias for [`Array{T,2}`](@ref).
"""
const Matrix{T} = Array{T,2}
"""
    VecOrMat{T}

Union type of [`Vector{T}`](@ref) and [`Matrix{T}`](@ref).
"""
const VecOrMat{T} = Union{Vector{T}, Matrix{T}}

"""
    DenseArray{T, N} <: AbstractArray{T,N}

`N`-dimensional dense array with elements of type `T`.
The elements of a dense array are stored contiguously in memory.
"""
DenseArray

"""
    DenseVector{T}

One-dimensional [`DenseArray`](@ref) with elements of type `T`. Alias for `DenseArray{T,1}`.
"""
const DenseVector{T} = DenseArray{T,1}

"""
    DenseMatrix{T}

Two-dimensional [`DenseArray`](@ref) with elements of type `T`. Alias for `DenseArray{T,2}`.
"""
const DenseMatrix{T} = DenseArray{T,2}

"""
    DenseVecOrMat{T}

Union type of [`DenseVector{T}`](@ref) and [`DenseMatrix{T}`](@ref).
"""
const DenseVecOrMat{T} = Union{DenseVector{T}, DenseMatrix{T}}

## Basic functions ##

"""
    eltype(type)

Determine the type of the elements generated by iterating a collection of the given `type`.
For dictionary types, this will be a `Pair{KeyType,ValType}`. The definition
`eltype(x) = eltype(typeof(x))` is provided for convenience so that instances can be passed
instead of types. However the form that accepts a type argument should be defined for new
types.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> eltype(fill(1f0, (2,2)))
Float32

julia> eltype(fill(0x1, (2,2)))
UInt8
```
"""
eltype(::Type) = Any
eltype(::Type{Bottom}) = throw(ArgumentError("Union{} does not have elements"))
eltype(x) = eltype(typeof(x))

import Core: arraysize, arrayset, arrayref, const_arrayref

vect() = Vector{Any}()
vect(X::T...) where {T} = T[ X[i] for i = 1:length(X) ]

"""
    vect(X...)

Create a [`Vector`](@ref) with element type computed from the `promote_typeof` of the argument,
containing the argument list.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> a = Base.vect(UInt8(1), 2.5, 1//2)
3-element Array{Float64,1}:
 1.0
 2.5
 0.5
```
"""
function vect(X...)
    T = promote_typeof(X...)
    #T[ X[i] for i=1:length(X) ]
    # TODO: this is currently much faster. should figure out why. not clear.
    return copyto!(Vector{T}(undef, length(X)), X)
end

size(a::Array, d::Integer) = arraysize(a, convert(Int, d))
size(a::Vector) = (arraysize(a,1),)
size(a::Matrix) = (arraysize(a,1), arraysize(a,2))
size(a::Array{<:Any,N}) where {N} = (@_inline_meta; ntuple(M -> size(a, M), Val(N)))

asize_from(a::Array, n) = n > ndims(a) ? () : (arraysize(a,n), asize_from(a, n+1)...)

allocatedinline(::Type{T}) where {T} = (@_pure_meta; ccall(:jl_array_store_unboxed, Cint, (Any,), T) != Cint(0))

"""
    Base.isbitsunion(::Type{T})

Return whether a type is an "is-bits" Union type, meaning each type included in a Union is [`isbitstype`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> Base.isbitsunion(Union{Float64, UInt8})
true

julia> Base.isbitsunion(Union{Float64, String})
false
```
"""
isbitsunion(u::Union) = allocatedinline(u)
isbitsunion(x) = false

function _unsetindex!(A::Array{T}, i::Int) where {T}
    @boundscheck checkbounds(A, i)
    if !allocatedinline(T)
        t = @_gc_preserve_begin A
        p = Ptr{Ptr{Cvoid}}(pointer(A))
        unsafe_store!(p, C_NULL, i)
        @_gc_preserve_end t
    end
    return A
end


"""
    Base.bitsunionsize(U::Union)

For a `Union` of [`isbitstype`](@ref) types, return the size of the largest type; assumes `Base.isbitsunion(U) == true`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> Base.bitsunionsize(Union{Float64, UInt8})
0x0000000000000008

julia> Base.bitsunionsize(Union{Float64, UInt8, Int128})
0x0000000000000010
```
"""
function bitsunionsize(u::Union)
    sz = Ref{Csize_t}(0)
    algn = Ref{Csize_t}(0)
    isunboxed = ccall(:jl_islayout_inline, Cint, (Any, Ptr{Csize_t}, Ptr{Csize_t}), u, sz, algn)
    @assert isunboxed != Cint(0)
    return sz[]
end

length(a::Array) = arraylen(a)
elsize(::Type{<:Array{T}}) where {T} = isbitsunion(T) ? bitsunionsize(T) : (allocatedinline(T) ? sizeof(T) : sizeof(Ptr))
sizeof(a::Array) = Core.sizeof(a)

function isassigned(a::Array, i::Int...)
    @_inline_meta
    ii = (_sub2ind(size(a), i...) % UInt) - 1
    @boundscheck ii < length(a) % UInt || return false
    ccall(:jl_array_isassigned, Cint, (Any, UInt), a, ii) == 1
end

## copy ##

"""
    unsafe_copyto!(dest::Ptr{T}, src::Ptr{T}, N)

Copy `N` elements from a source pointer to a destination, with no checking. The size of an
element is determined by the type of the pointers.

The `unsafe` prefix on this function indicates that no validation is performed on the
pointers `dest` and `src` to ensure that they are valid. Incorrect usage may corrupt or
segfault your program, in the same manner as C.
"""
function unsafe_copyto!(dest::Ptr{T}, src::Ptr{T}, n) where T
    # Do not use this to copy data between pointer arrays.
    # It can't be made safe no matter how carefully you checked.
    ccall(:memmove, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, UInt),
          dest, src, n*sizeof(T))
    return dest
end

"""
    unsafe_copyto!(dest::Array, do, src::Array, so, N)

Copy `N` elements from a source array to a destination, starting at offset `so` in the
source and `do` in the destination (1-indexed).

The `unsafe` prefix on this function indicates that no validation is performed to ensure
that N is inbounds on either array. Incorrect usage may corrupt or segfault your program, in
the same manner as C.
"""
function unsafe_copyto!(dest::Array{T}, doffs, src::Array{T}, soffs, n) where T
    t1 = @_gc_preserve_begin dest
    t2 = @_gc_preserve_begin src
    if isbitsunion(T)
        ccall(:memmove, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, UInt),
              pointer(dest, doffs), pointer(src, soffs), n * Base.bitsunionsize(T))
        # copy selector bytes
        ccall(:memmove, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, UInt),
              ccall(:jl_array_typetagdata, Ptr{UInt8}, (Any,), dest) + doffs - 1,
              ccall(:jl_array_typetagdata, Ptr{UInt8}, (Any,), src) + soffs - 1,
              n)
    elseif allocatedinline(T)
        unsafe_copyto!(pointer(dest, doffs), pointer(src, soffs), n)
    else
        ccall(:jl_array_ptr_copy, Cvoid, (Any, Ptr{Cvoid}, Any, Ptr{Cvoid}, Int),
              dest, pointer(dest, doffs), src, pointer(src, soffs), n)
    end
    @_gc_preserve_end t2
    @_gc_preserve_end t1
    return dest
end

"""
    copyto!(dest, do, src, so, N)

Copy `N` elements from collection `src` starting at offset `so`, to array `dest` starting at
offset `do`. Return `dest`.
"""
function copyto!(dest::Array{T}, doffs::Integer, src::Array{T}, soffs::Integer, n::Integer) where T
    n == 0 && return dest
    n > 0 || _throw_argerror()
    if soffs < 1 || doffs < 1 || soffs+n-1 > length(src) || doffs+n-1 > length(dest)
        throw(BoundsError())
    end
    unsafe_copyto!(dest, doffs, src, soffs, n)
    return dest
end

# Outlining this because otherwise a catastrophic inference slowdown
# occurs, see discussion in #27874.
# It is also mitigated by using a constant string.
function _throw_argerror()
    @_noinline_meta
    throw(ArgumentError("Number of elements to copy must be nonnegative."))
end

copyto!(dest::Array{T}, src::Array{T}) where {T} = copyto!(dest, 1, src, 1, length(src))

# N.B: The generic definition in multidimensional.jl covers, this, this is just here
# for bootstrapping purposes.
function fill!(dest::Array{T}, x) where T
    @_noinline_meta
    xT = convert(T, x)
    for i in eachindex(dest)
        @inbounds dest[i] = xT
    end
    return dest
end

"""
    copy(x)

Create a shallow copy of `x`: the outer structure is copied, but not all internal values.
For example, copying an array produces a new array with identically-same elements as the
original.
"""
copy

copy(a::T) where {T<:Array} = ccall(:jl_array_copy, Ref{T}, (Any,), a)

## Constructors ##

similar(a::Array{T,1}) where {T}                    = Vector{T}(undef, size(a,1))
similar(a::Array{T,2}) where {T}                    = Matrix{T}(undef, size(a,1), size(a,2))
similar(a::Array{T,1}, S::Type) where {T}           = Vector{S}(undef, size(a,1))
similar(a::Array{T,2}, S::Type) where {T}           = Matrix{S}(undef, size(a,1), size(a,2))
similar(a::Array{T}, m::Int) where {T}              = Vector{T}(undef, m)
similar(a::Array, T::Type, dims::Dims{N}) where {N} = Array{T,N}(undef, dims)
similar(a::Array{T}, dims::Dims{N}) where {T,N}     = Array{T,N}(undef, dims)

# T[x...] constructs Array{T,1}
"""
    getindex(type[, elements...])

Construct a 1-d array of the specified type. This is usually called with the syntax
`Type[]`. Element values can be specified using `Type[a,b,c,...]`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> Int8[1, 2, 3]
3-element Array{Int8,1}:
 1
 2
 3

julia> getindex(Int8, 1, 2, 3)
3-element Array{Int8,1}:
 1
 2
 3
```
"""
function getindex(::Type{T}, vals...) where T
    a = Vector{T}(undef, length(vals))
    @inbounds for i = 1:length(vals)
        a[i] = vals[i]
    end
    return a
end

getindex(::Type{T}) where {T} = (@_inline_meta; Vector{T}())
getindex(::Type{T}, x) where {T} = (@_inline_meta; a = Vector{T}(undef, 1); @inbounds a[1] = x; a)
getindex(::Type{T}, x, y) where {T} = (@_inline_meta; a = Vector{T}(undef, 2); @inbounds (a[1] = x; a[2] = y); a)
getindex(::Type{T}, x, y, z) where {T} = (@_inline_meta; a = Vector{T}(undef, 3); @inbounds (a[1] = x; a[2] = y; a[3] = z); a)

function getindex(::Type{Any}, @nospecialize vals...)
    a = Vector{Any}(undef, length(vals))
    @inbounds for i = 1:length(vals)
        a[i] = vals[i]
    end
    return a
end
getindex(::Type{Any}) = Vector{Any}()

function fill!(a::Union{Array{UInt8}, Array{Int8}}, x::Integer)
    ccall(:memset, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Cint, Csize_t), a, convert(eltype(a), x), length(a))
    return a
end

to_dim(d::Integer) = d
to_dim(d::OneTo) = last(d)

"""
    fill(x, dims::Tuple)
    fill(x, dims...)

Create an array filled with the value `x`. For example, `fill(1.0, (5,5))` returns a 5×5
array of floats, with each element initialized to `1.0`.

`dims` may be specified as either a tuple or a sequence of arguments. For example,
the common idiom `fill(x)` creates a zero-dimensional array containing the single value `x`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> fill(1.0, (5,5))
5×5 Array{Float64,2}:
 1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0
 1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0
 1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0
 1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0
 1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0  1.0

julia> fill(0.5, 1, 2)
1×2 Array{Float64,2}:
 0.5  0.5

julia> fill(42)
0-dimensional Array{Int64,0}:
42
```

If `x` is an object reference, all elements will refer to the same object. `fill(Foo(),
dims)` will return an array filled with the result of evaluating `Foo()` once.
"""
function fill end

fill(v, dims::DimOrInd...) = fill(v, dims)
fill(v, dims::NTuple{N, Union{Integer, OneTo}}) where {N} = fill(v, map(to_dim, dims))
fill(v, dims::NTuple{N, Integer}) where {N} = (a=Array{typeof(v),N}(undef, dims); fill!(a, v); a)
fill(v, dims::Tuple{}) = (a=Array{typeof(v),0}(undef, dims); fill!(a, v); a)

"""
    zeros([T=Float64,] dims::Tuple)
    zeros([T=Float64,] dims...)

Create an `Array`, with element type `T`, of all zeros with size specified by `dims`.
See also [`fill`](@ref), [`ones`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> zeros(1)
1-element Array{Float64,1}:
 0.0

julia> zeros(Int8, 2, 3)
2×3 Array{Int8,2}:
 0  0  0
 0  0  0
```
"""
function zeros end

"""
    ones([T=Float64,] dims::Tuple)
    ones([T=Float64,] dims...)

Create an `Array`, with element type `T`, of all ones with size specified by `dims`.
See also: [`fill`](@ref), [`zeros`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> ones(1,2)
1×2 Array{Float64,2}:
 1.0  1.0

julia> ones(ComplexF64, 2, 3)
2×3 Array{Complex{Float64},2}:
 1.0+0.0im  1.0+0.0im  1.0+0.0im
 1.0+0.0im  1.0+0.0im  1.0+0.0im
```
"""
function ones end

for (fname, felt) in ((:zeros, :zero), (:ones, :one))
    @eval begin
        $fname(dims::DimOrInd...) = $fname(dims)
        $fname(::Type{T}, dims::DimOrInd...) where {T} = $fname(T, dims)
        $fname(dims::Tuple{Vararg{DimOrInd}}) = $fname(Float64, dims)
        $fname(::Type{T}, dims::NTuple{N, Union{Integer, OneTo}}) where {T,N} = $fname(T, map(to_dim, dims))
        function $fname(::Type{T}, dims::NTuple{N, Integer}) where {T,N}
            a = Array{T,N}(undef, dims)
            fill!(a, $felt(T))
            return a
        end
        function $fname(::Type{T}, dims::Tuple{}) where {T}
            a = Array{T}(undef)
            fill!(a, $felt(T))
            return a
        end
    end
end

function _one(unit::T, x::AbstractMatrix) where T
    require_one_based_indexing(x)
    m,n = size(x)
    m==n || throw(DimensionMismatch("multiplicative identity defined only for square matrices"))
    # Matrix{T}(I, m, m)
    I = zeros(T, m, m)
    for i in 1:m
        I[i,i] = unit
    end
    I
end

one(x::AbstractMatrix{T}) where {T} = _one(one(T), x)
oneunit(x::AbstractMatrix{T}) where {T} = _one(oneunit(T), x)

## Conversions ##

convert(::Type{T}, a::AbstractArray) where {T<:Array} = a isa T ? a : T(a)

promote_rule(a::Type{Array{T,n}}, b::Type{Array{S,n}}) where {T,n,S} = el_same(promote_type(T,S), a, b)

## Constructors ##

if nameof(@__MODULE__) === :Base  # avoid method overwrite
# constructors should make copies
Array{T,N}(x::AbstractArray{S,N})         where {T,N,S} = copyto!(Array{T,N}(undef, size(x)), x)
AbstractArray{T,N}(A::AbstractArray{S,N}) where {T,N,S} = copyto!(similar(A,T), A)
end

## copying iterators to containers

"""
    collect(element_type, collection)

Return an `Array` with the given element type of all items in a collection or iterable.
The result has the same shape and number of dimensions as `collection`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> collect(Float64, 1:2:5)
3-element Array{Float64,1}:
 1.0
 3.0
 5.0
```
"""
collect(::Type{T}, itr) where {T} = _collect(T, itr, IteratorSize(itr))

_collect(::Type{T}, itr, isz::HasLength) where {T} = copyto!(Vector{T}(undef, Int(length(itr)::Integer)), itr)
_collect(::Type{T}, itr, isz::HasShape) where {T}  = copyto!(similar(Array{T}, axes(itr)), itr)
function _collect(::Type{T}, itr, isz::SizeUnknown) where T
    a = Vector{T}()
    for x in itr
        push!(a,x)
    end
    return a
end

# make a collection similar to `c` and appropriate for collecting `itr`
_similar_for(c::AbstractArray, ::Type{T}, itr, ::SizeUnknown) where {T} = similar(c, T, 0)
_similar_for(c::AbstractArray, ::Type{T}, itr, ::HasLength) where {T} =
    similar(c, T, Int(length(itr)::Integer))
_similar_for(c::AbstractArray, ::Type{T}, itr, ::HasShape) where {T} =
    similar(c, T, axes(itr))
_similar_for(c, ::Type{T}, itr, isz) where {T} = similar(c, T)

"""
    collect(collection)

Return an `Array` of all items in a collection or iterator. For dictionaries, returns
`Pair{KeyType, ValType}`. If the argument is array-like or is an iterator with the
[`HasShape`](@ref IteratorSize) trait, the result will have the same shape
and number of dimensions as the argument.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> collect(1:2:13)
7-element Array{Int64,1}:
  1
  3
  5
  7
  9
 11
 13
```
"""
collect(itr) = _collect(1:1 #= Array =#, itr, IteratorEltype(itr), IteratorSize(itr))

collect(A::AbstractArray) = _collect_indices(axes(A), A)

collect_similar(cont, itr) = _collect(cont, itr, IteratorEltype(itr), IteratorSize(itr))

_collect(cont, itr, ::HasEltype, isz::Union{HasLength,HasShape}) =
    copyto!(_similar_for(cont, eltype(itr), itr, isz), itr)

function _collect(cont, itr, ::HasEltype, isz::SizeUnknown)
    a = _similar_for(cont, eltype(itr), itr, isz)
    for x in itr
        push!(a,x)
    end
    return a
end

_collect_indices(::Tuple{}, A) = copyto!(Array{eltype(A),0}(undef), A)
_collect_indices(indsA::Tuple{Vararg{OneTo}}, A) =
    copyto!(Array{eltype(A)}(undef, length.(indsA)), A)
function _collect_indices(indsA, A)
    B = Array{eltype(A)}(undef, length.(indsA))
    copyto!(B, CartesianIndices(axes(B)), A, CartesianIndices(indsA))
end

# define this as a macro so that the call to Core.Compiler
# gets inlined into the caller before recursion detection
# gets a chance to see it, so that recursive calls to the caller
# don't trigger the inference limiter
if isdefined(Core, :Compiler)
    macro default_eltype(itr)
        I = esc(itr)
        return quote
            if $I isa Generator && ($I).f isa Type
                ($I).f
            else
                Core.Compiler.return_type(first, Tuple{typeof($I)})
            end
        end
    end
else
    macro default_eltype(itr)
        I = esc(itr)
        return quote
            if $I isa Generator && ($I).f isa Type
                ($I).f
            else
                Any
            end
        end
    end
end

_array_for(::Type{T}, itr, ::HasLength) where {T} = Vector{T}(undef, Int(length(itr)::Integer))
_array_for(::Type{T}, itr, ::HasShape{N}) where {T,N} = similar(Array{T,N}, axes(itr))

function collect(itr::Generator)
    isz = IteratorSize(itr.iter)
    et = @default_eltype(itr)
    if isa(isz, SizeUnknown)
        return grow_to!(Vector{et}(), itr)
    else
        y = iterate(itr)
        if y === nothing
            return _array_for(et, itr.iter, isz)
        end
        v1, st = y
        collect_to_with_first!(_array_for(typeof(v1), itr.iter, isz), v1, itr, st)
    end
end

_collect(c, itr, ::EltypeUnknown, isz::SizeUnknown) =
    grow_to!(_similar_for(c, @default_eltype(itr), itr, isz), itr)

function _collect(c, itr, ::EltypeUnknown, isz::Union{HasLength,HasShape})
    y = iterate(itr)
    if y === nothing
        return _similar_for(c, @default_eltype(itr), itr, isz)
    end
    v1, st = y
    collect_to_with_first!(_similar_for(c, typeof(v1), itr, isz), v1, itr, st)
end

function collect_to_with_first!(dest::AbstractArray, v1, itr, st)
    i1 = first(LinearIndices(dest))
    dest[i1] = v1
    return collect_to!(dest, itr, i1+1, st)
end

function collect_to_with_first!(dest, v1, itr, st)
    push!(dest, v1)
    return grow_to!(dest, itr, st)
end

function setindex_widen_up_to(dest::AbstractArray{T}, el, i) where T
    @_inline_meta
    new = similar(dest, promote_typejoin(T, typeof(el)))
    copyto!(new, firstindex(new), dest, firstindex(dest), i-1)
    @inbounds new[i] = el
    return new
end

function collect_to!(dest::AbstractArray{T}, itr, offs, st) where T
    # collect to dest array, checking the type of each result. if a result does not
    # match, widen the result type and re-dispatch.
    i = offs
    while true
        y = iterate(itr, st)
        y === nothing && break
        el, st = y
        if el isa T || typeof(el) === T
            @inbounds dest[i] = el::T
            i += 1
        else
            new = setindex_widen_up_to(dest, el, i)
            return collect_to!(new, itr, i+1, st)
        end
    end
    return dest
end

function grow_to!(dest, itr)
    y = iterate(itr)
    y === nothing && return dest
    dest2 = empty(dest, typeof(y[1]))
    push!(dest2, y[1])
    grow_to!(dest2, itr, y[2])
end

function push_widen(dest, el)
    @_inline_meta
    new = sizehint!(empty(dest, promote_typejoin(eltype(dest), typeof(el))), length(dest))
    if new isa AbstractSet
        # TODO: merge back these two branches when copy! is re-enabled for sets/vectors
        union!(new, dest)
    else
        append!(new, dest)
    end
    push!(new, el)
    return new
end

function grow_to!(dest, itr, st)
    T = eltype(dest)
    y = iterate(itr, st)
    while y !== nothing
        el, st = y
        if el isa T || typeof(el) === T
            push!(dest, el::T)
        else
            new = push_widen(dest, el)
            return grow_to!(new, itr, st)
        end
        y = iterate(itr, st)
    end
    return dest
end

## Iteration ##

iterate(A::Array, i=1) = (@_inline_meta; (i % UInt) - 1 < length(A) ? (@inbounds A[i], i + 1) : nothing)

## Indexing: getindex ##

"""
    getindex(collection, key...)

Retrieve the value(s) stored at the given key or index within a collection. The syntax
`a[i,j,...]` is converted by the compiler to `getindex(a, i, j, ...)`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = Dict("a" => 1, "b" => 2)
Dict{String,Int64} with 2 entries:
  "b" => 2
  "a" => 1

julia> getindex(A, "a")
1
```
"""
function getindex end

# This is more complicated than it needs to be in order to get Win64 through bootstrap
@eval getindex(A::Array, i1::Int) = arrayref($(Expr(:boundscheck)), A, i1)
@eval getindex(A::Array, i1::Int, i2::Int, I::Int...) = (@_inline_meta; arrayref($(Expr(:boundscheck)), A, i1, i2, I...))

# Faster contiguous indexing using copyto! for UnitRange and Colon
function getindex(A::Array, I::UnitRange{Int})
    @_inline_meta
    @boundscheck checkbounds(A, I)
    lI = length(I)
    X = similar(A, lI)
    if lI > 0
        unsafe_copyto!(X, 1, A, first(I), lI)
    end
    return X
end
function getindex(A::Array, c::Colon)
    lI = length(A)
    X = similar(A, lI)
    if lI > 0
        unsafe_copyto!(X, 1, A, 1, lI)
    end
    return X
end

# This is redundant with the abstract fallbacks, but needed for bootstrap
function getindex(A::Array{S}, I::AbstractRange{Int}) where S
    return S[ A[i] for i in I ]
end

## Indexing: setindex! ##

"""
    setindex!(collection, value, key...)

Store the given value at the given key or index within a collection. The syntax `a[i,j,...] =
x` is converted by the compiler to `(setindex!(a, x, i, j, ...); x)`.
"""
function setindex! end

@eval setindex!(A::Array{T}, x, i1::Int) where {T} = arrayset($(Expr(:boundscheck)), A, convert(T,x)::T, i1)
@eval setindex!(A::Array{T}, x, i1::Int, i2::Int, I::Int...) where {T} =
    (@_inline_meta; arrayset($(Expr(:boundscheck)), A, convert(T,x)::T, i1, i2, I...))

# This is redundant with the abstract fallbacks but needed and helpful for bootstrap
function setindex!(A::Array, X::AbstractArray, I::AbstractVector{Int})
    @_propagate_inbounds_meta
    @boundscheck setindex_shape_check(X, length(I))
    require_one_based_indexing(X)
    X′ = unalias(A, X)
    I′ = unalias(A, I)
    count = 1
    for i in I′
        @inbounds x = X′[count]
        A[i] = x
        count += 1
    end
    return A
end

# Faster contiguous setindex! with copyto!
function setindex!(A::Array{T}, X::Array{T}, I::UnitRange{Int}) where T
    @_inline_meta
    @boundscheck checkbounds(A, I)
    lI = length(I)
    @boundscheck setindex_shape_check(X, lI)
    if lI > 0
        unsafe_copyto!(A, first(I), X, 1, lI)
    end
    return A
end
function setindex!(A::Array{T}, X::Array{T}, c::Colon) where T
    @_inline_meta
    lI = length(A)
    @boundscheck setindex_shape_check(X, lI)
    if lI > 0
        unsafe_copyto!(A, 1, X, 1, lI)
    end
    return A
end

# efficiently grow an array

_growbeg!(a::Vector, delta::Integer) =
    ccall(:jl_array_grow_beg, Cvoid, (Any, UInt), a, delta)
_growend!(a::Vector, delta::Integer) =
    ccall(:jl_array_grow_end, Cvoid, (Any, UInt), a, delta)
_growat!(a::Vector, i::Integer, delta::Integer) =
    ccall(:jl_array_grow_at, Cvoid, (Any, Int, UInt), a, i - 1, delta)

# efficiently delete part of an array

_deletebeg!(a::Vector, delta::Integer) =
    ccall(:jl_array_del_beg, Cvoid, (Any, UInt), a, delta)
_deleteend!(a::Vector, delta::Integer) =
    ccall(:jl_array_del_end, Cvoid, (Any, UInt), a, delta)
_deleteat!(a::Vector, i::Integer, delta::Integer) =
    ccall(:jl_array_del_at, Cvoid, (Any, Int, UInt), a, i - 1, delta)

## Dequeue functionality ##

"""
    push!(collection, items...) -> collection

Insert one or more `items` in `collection`. If `collection` is an ordered container,
the items are inserted at the end (in the given order).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> push!([1, 2, 3], 4, 5, 6)
6-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
```

If `collection` is ordered, use [`append!`](@ref) to add all the elements of another
collection to it. The result of the preceding example is equivalent to `append!([1, 2, 3], [4,
5, 6])`. For `AbstractSet` objects, [`union!`](@ref) can be used instead.
"""
function push! end

function push!(a::Array{T,1}, item) where T
    # convert first so we don't grow the array if the assignment won't work
    itemT = convert(T, item)
    _growend!(a, 1)
    a[end] = itemT
    return a
end

function push!(a::Array{Any,1}, @nospecialize item)
    _growend!(a, 1)
    arrayset(true, a, item, length(a))
    return a
end

"""
    append!(collection, collection2) -> collection.

For an ordered container `collection`, add the elements of `collection2` to the end of it.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> append!([1],[2,3])
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3

julia> append!([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6])
6-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
```

Use [`push!`](@ref) to add individual items to `collection` which are not already
themselves in another collection. The result of the preceding example is equivalent to
`push!([1, 2, 3], 4, 5, 6)`.
"""
function append!(a::Vector, items::AbstractVector)
    itemindices = eachindex(items)
    n = length(itemindices)
    _growend!(a, n)
    copyto!(a, length(a)-n+1, items, first(itemindices), n)
    return a
end

append!(a::AbstractVector, iter) = _append!(a, IteratorSize(iter), iter)
push!(a::AbstractVector, iter...) = append!(a, iter)

function _append!(a, ::Union{HasLength,HasShape}, iter)
    n = length(a)
    i = lastindex(a)
    resize!(a, n+length(iter))
    @inbounds for (i, item) in zip(i+1:lastindex(a), iter)
        a[i] = item
    end
    a
end

function _append!(a, ::IteratorSize, iter)
    for item in iter
        push!(a, item)
    end
    a
end

"""
    prepend!(a::Vector, items) -> collection

Insert the elements of `items` to the beginning of `a`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> prepend!([3],[1,2])
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
```
"""
function prepend! end

function prepend!(a::Vector, items::AbstractVector)
    itemindices = eachindex(items)
    n = length(itemindices)
    _growbeg!(a, n)
    if a === items
        copyto!(a, 1, items, n+1, n)
    else
        copyto!(a, 1, items, first(itemindices), n)
    end
    return a
end

prepend!(a::Vector, iter) = _prepend!(a, IteratorSize(iter), iter)
pushfirst!(a::Vector, iter...) = prepend!(a, iter)

function _prepend!(a, ::Union{HasLength,HasShape}, iter)
    require_one_based_indexing(a)
    n = length(iter)
    _growbeg!(a, n)
    i = 0
    for item in iter
        @inbounds a[i += 1] = item
    end
    a
end
function _prepend!(a, ::IteratorSize, iter)
    n = 0
    for item in iter
        n += 1
        pushfirst!(a, item)
    end
    reverse!(a, 1, n)
    a
end

"""
    resize!(a::Vector, n::Integer) -> Vector

Resize `a` to contain `n` elements. If `n` is smaller than the current collection
length, the first `n` elements will be retained. If `n` is larger, the new elements are not
guaranteed to be initialized.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> resize!([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1], 3)
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 6
 5
 4

julia> a = resize!([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1], 8);

julia> length(a)
8

julia> a[1:6]
6-element Array{Int64,1}:
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1
```
"""
function resize!(a::Vector, nl::Integer)
    l = length(a)
    if nl > l
        _growend!(a, nl-l)
    elseif nl != l
        if nl < 0
            throw(ArgumentError("new length must be ≥ 0"))
        end
        _deleteend!(a, l-nl)
    end
    return a
end

"""
    sizehint!(s, n)

Suggest that collection `s` reserve capacity for at least `n` elements. This can improve performance.
"""
function sizehint! end

function sizehint!(a::Vector, sz::Integer)
    ccall(:jl_array_sizehint, Cvoid, (Any, UInt), a, sz)
    a
end

"""
    pop!(collection) -> item

Remove an item in `collection` and return it. If `collection` is an
ordered container, the last item is returned.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A=[1, 2, 3]
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3

julia> pop!(A)
3

julia> A
2-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2

julia> S = Set([1, 2])
Set([2, 1])

julia> pop!(S)
2

julia> S
Set([1])

julia> pop!(Dict(1=>2))
1 => 2
```
"""
function pop!(a::Vector)
    if isempty(a)
        throw(ArgumentError("array must be non-empty"))
    end
    item = a[end]
    _deleteend!(a, 1)
    return item
end

"""
    pushfirst!(collection, items...) -> collection

Insert one or more `items` at the beginning of `collection`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> pushfirst!([1, 2, 3, 4], 5, 6)
6-element Array{Int64,1}:
 5
 6
 1
 2
 3
 4
```
"""
function pushfirst!(a::Array{T,1}, item) where T
    item = convert(T, item)
    _growbeg!(a, 1)
    a[1] = item
    return a
end

"""
    popfirst!(collection) -> item

Remove the first `item` from `collection`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
6-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6

julia> popfirst!(A)
1

julia> A
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 2
 3
 4
 5
 6
```
"""
function popfirst!(a::Vector)
    if isempty(a)
        throw(ArgumentError("array must be non-empty"))
    end
    item = a[1]
    _deletebeg!(a, 1)
    return item
end

"""
    insert!(a::Vector, index::Integer, item)

Insert an `item` into `a` at the given `index`. `index` is the index of `item` in
the resulting `a`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> insert!([6, 5, 4, 2, 1], 4, 3)
6-element Array{Int64,1}:
 6
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1
```
"""
function insert!(a::Array{T,1}, i::Integer, item) where T
    # Throw convert error before changing the shape of the array
    _item = convert(T, item)
    _growat!(a, i, 1)
    # _growat! already did bound check
    @inbounds a[i] = _item
    return a
end

"""
    deleteat!(a::Vector, i::Integer)

Remove the item at the given `i` and return the modified `a`. Subsequent items
are shifted to fill the resulting gap.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> deleteat!([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1], 2)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 6
 4
 3
 2
 1
```
"""
deleteat!(a::Vector, i::Integer) = (_deleteat!(a, i, 1); a)

function deleteat!(a::Vector, r::UnitRange{<:Integer})
    n = length(a)
    isempty(r) || _deleteat!(a, first(r), length(r))
    return a
end

"""
    deleteat!(a::Vector, inds)

Remove the items at the indices given by `inds`, and return the modified `a`.
Subsequent items are shifted to fill the resulting gap.

`inds` can be either an iterator or a collection of sorted and unique integer indices,
or a boolean vector of the same length as `a` with `true` indicating entries to delete.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> deleteat!([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1], 1:2:5)
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 5
 3
 1

julia> deleteat!([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1], [true, false, true, false, true, false])
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 5
 3
 1

julia> deleteat!([6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1], (2, 2))
ERROR: ArgumentError: indices must be unique and sorted
Stacktrace:
[...]
```
"""
deleteat!(a::Vector, inds) = _deleteat!(a, inds)
deleteat!(a::Vector, inds::AbstractVector) = _deleteat!(a, to_indices(a, (inds,))[1])

function _deleteat!(a::Vector, inds)
    n = length(a)
    y = iterate(inds)
    y === nothing && return a
    n == 0 && throw(BoundsError(a, inds))
    (p, s) = y
    q = p+1
    while true
        y = iterate(inds, s)
        y === nothing && break
        (i,s) = y
        if !(q <= i <= n)
            if i < q
                throw(ArgumentError("indices must be unique and sorted"))
            else
                throw(BoundsError())
            end
        end
        while q < i
            @inbounds a[p] = a[q]
            p += 1; q += 1
        end
        q = i+1
    end
    while q <= n
        @inbounds a[p] = a[q]
        p += 1; q += 1
    end
    _deleteend!(a, n-p+1)
    return a
end

# Simpler and more efficient version for logical indexing
function deleteat!(a::Vector, inds::AbstractVector{Bool})
    n = length(a)
    length(inds) == n || throw(BoundsError(a, inds))
    p = 1
    for (q, i) in enumerate(inds)
        @inbounds a[p] = a[q]
        p += !i
    end
    _deleteend!(a, n-p+1)
    return a
end

const _default_splice = []

"""
    splice!(a::Vector, index::Integer, [replacement]) -> item

Remove the item at the given index, and return the removed item.
Subsequent items are shifted left to fill the resulting gap.
If specified, replacement values from an ordered
collection will be spliced in place of the removed item.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]; splice!(A, 5)
2

julia> A
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 6
 5
 4
 3
 1

julia> splice!(A, 5, -1)
1

julia> A
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
  6
  5
  4
  3
 -1

julia> splice!(A, 1, [-1, -2, -3])
6

julia> A
7-element Array{Int64,1}:
 -1
 -2
 -3
  5
  4
  3
 -1
```

To insert `replacement` before an index `n` without removing any items, use
`splice!(collection, n:n-1, replacement)`.
"""
function splice!(a::Vector, i::Integer, ins=_default_splice)
    v = a[i]
    m = length(ins)
    if m == 0
        _deleteat!(a, i, 1)
    elseif m == 1
        a[i] = ins[1]
    else
        _growat!(a, i, m-1)
        k = 1
        for x in ins
            a[i+k-1] = x
            k += 1
        end
    end
    return v
end

"""
    splice!(a::Vector, range, [replacement]) -> items

Remove items in the specified index range, and return a collection containing
the removed items.
Subsequent items are shifted left to fill the resulting gap.
If specified, replacement values from an ordered collection will be spliced in
place of the removed items.

To insert `replacement` before an index `n` without removing any items, use
`splice!(collection, n:n-1, replacement)`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [-1, -2, -3, 5, 4, 3, -1]; splice!(A, 4:3, 2)
0-element Array{Int64,1}

julia> A
8-element Array{Int64,1}:
 -1
 -2
 -3
  2
  5
  4
  3
 -1
```
"""
function splice!(a::Vector, r::UnitRange{<:Integer}, ins=_default_splice)
    v = a[r]
    m = length(ins)
    if m == 0
        deleteat!(a, r)
        return v
    end

    n = length(a)
    f = first(r)
    l = last(r)
    d = length(r)

    if m < d
        delta = d - m
        _deleteat!(a, (f - 1 < n - l) ? f : (l - delta + 1), delta)
    elseif m > d
        _growat!(a, (f - 1 < n - l) ? f : (l + 1), m - d)
    end

    k = 1
    for x in ins
        a[f+k-1] = x
        k += 1
    end
    return v
end

function empty!(a::Vector)
    _deleteend!(a, length(a))
    return a
end

_memcmp(a, b, len) = ccall(:memcmp, Cint, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, Csize_t), a, b, len % Csize_t) % Int

# use memcmp for cmp on byte arrays
function cmp(a::Array{UInt8,1}, b::Array{UInt8,1})
    c = _memcmp(a, b, min(length(a),length(b)))
    return c < 0 ? -1 : c > 0 ? +1 : cmp(length(a),length(b))
end

const BitIntegerArray{N} = Union{map(T->Array{T,N}, BitInteger_types)...} where N
# use memcmp for == on bit integer types
==(a::Arr, b::Arr) where {Arr <: BitIntegerArray} =
    size(a) == size(b) && 0 == _memcmp(a, b, sizeof(eltype(Arr)) * length(a))

# this is ~20% faster than the generic implementation above for very small arrays
function ==(a::Arr, b::Arr) where Arr <: BitIntegerArray{1}
    len = length(a)
    len == length(b) && 0 == _memcmp(a, b, sizeof(eltype(Arr)) * len)
end

"""
    reverse(v [, start=1 [, stop=length(v) ]] )

Return a copy of `v` reversed from start to stop.  See also [`Iterators.reverse`](@ref)
for reverse-order iteration without making a copy.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = Vector(1:5)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5

julia> reverse(A)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1

julia> reverse(A, 1, 4)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 4
 3
 2
 1
 5

julia> reverse(A, 3, 5)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 5
 4
 3
```
"""
function reverse(A::AbstractVector, s=first(LinearIndices(A)), n=last(LinearIndices(A)))
    B = similar(A)
    for i = first(LinearIndices(A)):s-1
        B[i] = A[i]
    end
    for i = s:n
        B[i] = A[n+s-i]
    end
    for i = n+1:last(LinearIndices(A))
        B[i] = A[i]
    end
    return B
end

# to resolve ambiguity with reverse(A; dims)
reverse(A::Vector) = invoke(reverse, Tuple{AbstractVector}, A)

function reverseind(a::AbstractVector, i::Integer)
    li = LinearIndices(a)
    first(li) + last(li) - i
end

"""
    reverse!(v [, start=1 [, stop=length(v) ]]) -> v

In-place version of [`reverse`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = Vector(1:5)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
 4
 5

julia> reverse!(A);

julia> A
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 5
 4
 3
 2
 1
```
"""
function reverse!(v::AbstractVector, s=first(LinearIndices(v)), n=last(LinearIndices(v)))
    liv = LinearIndices(v)
    if n <= s  # empty case; ok
    elseif !(first(liv) ≤ s ≤ last(liv))
        throw(BoundsError(v, s))
    elseif !(first(liv) ≤ n ≤ last(liv))
        throw(BoundsError(v, n))
    end
    r = n
    @inbounds for i in s:div(s+n-1, 2)
        v[i], v[r] = v[r], v[i]
        r -= 1
    end
    return v
end

# concatenations of homogeneous combinations of vectors, horizontal and vertical

vcat() = Vector{Any}()
hcat() = Vector{Any}()

function hcat(V::Vector{T}...) where T
    height = length(V[1])
    for j = 2:length(V)
        if length(V[j]) != height
            throw(DimensionMismatch("vectors must have same lengths"))
        end
    end
    return [ V[j][i]::T for i=1:length(V[1]), j=1:length(V) ]
end

function vcat(arrays::Vector{T}...) where T
    n = 0
    for a in arrays
        n += length(a)
    end
    arr = Vector{T}(undef, n)
    ptr = pointer(arr)
    if isbitsunion(T)
        elsz = bitsunionsize(T)
        selptr = ccall(:jl_array_typetagdata, Ptr{UInt8}, (Any,), arr)
    elseif allocatedinline(T)
        elsz = Core.sizeof(T)
    else
        elsz = Core.sizeof(Ptr{Cvoid})
    end
    t = @_gc_preserve_begin arr
    for a in arrays
        na = length(a)
        nba = na * elsz
        if isbitsunion(T)
            ccall(:memcpy, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, UInt),
                  ptr, a, nba)
            # copy selector bytes
            ccall(:memcpy, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, UInt),
                  selptr, ccall(:jl_array_typetagdata, Ptr{UInt8}, (Any,), a), na)
            selptr += na
        elseif allocatedinline(T)
            ccall(:memcpy, Ptr{Cvoid}, (Ptr{Cvoid}, Ptr{Cvoid}, UInt),
                  ptr, a, nba)
        else
            ccall(:jl_array_ptr_copy, Cvoid, (Any, Ptr{Cvoid}, Any, Ptr{Cvoid}, Int),
                  arr, ptr, a, pointer(a), na)
        end
        ptr += nba
    end
    @_gc_preserve_end t
    return arr
end

_cat(n::Integer, x::Integer...) = reshape([x...], (ntuple(x->1, n-1)..., length(x)))

## find ##

"""
    findnext(A, i)

Find the next index after or including `i` of a `true` element of `A`,
or `nothing` if not found.

Indices are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [false, false, true, false]
4-element Array{Bool,1}:
 0
 0
 1
 0

julia> findnext(A, 1)
3

julia> findnext(A, 4) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> A = [false false; true false]
2×2 Array{Bool,2}:
 0  0
 1  0

julia> findnext(A, CartesianIndex(1, 1))
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findnext(A, start)
    l = last(keys(A))
    i = start
    i > l && return nothing
    while true
        A[i] && return i
        i == l && break
        # nextind(A, l) can throw/overflow
        i = nextind(A, i)
    end
    return nothing
end

"""
    findfirst(A)

Return the index or key of the first `true` value in `A`.
Return `nothing` if no such value is found.
To search for other kinds of values, pass a predicate as the first argument.

Indices or keys are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [false, false, true, false]
4-element Array{Bool,1}:
 0
 0
 1
 0

julia> findfirst(A)
3

julia> findfirst(falses(3)) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> A = [false false; true false]
2×2 Array{Bool,2}:
 0  0
 1  0

julia> findfirst(A)
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findfirst(A)
    for (i, a) in pairs(A)
        if a
            return i
        end
    end
    return nothing
end

# Needed for bootstrap, and allows defining only an optimized findnext method
findfirst(A::Union{AbstractArray, AbstractString}) = findnext(A, first(keys(A)))

"""
    findnext(predicate::Function, A, i)

Find the next index after or including `i` of an element of `A`
for which `predicate` returns `true`, or `nothing` if not found.

Indices are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [1, 4, 2, 2];

julia> findnext(isodd, A, 1)
1

julia> findnext(isodd, A, 2) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> A = [1 4; 2 2];

julia> findnext(isodd, A, CartesianIndex(1, 1))
CartesianIndex(1, 1)
```
"""
function findnext(testf::Function, A, start)
    l = last(keys(A))
    i = start
    i > l && return nothing
    while true
        testf(A[i]) && return i
        i == l && break
        # nextind(A, l) can throw/overflow
        i = nextind(A, i)
    end
    return nothing
end

"""
    findfirst(predicate::Function, A)

Return the index or key of the first element of `A` for which `predicate` returns `true`.
Return `nothing` if there is no such element.

Indices or keys are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [1, 4, 2, 2]
4-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 4
 2
 2

julia> findfirst(iseven, A)
2

julia> findfirst(x -> x>10, A) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> findfirst(isequal(4), A)
2

julia> A = [1 4; 2 2]
2×2 Array{Int64,2}:
 1  4
 2  2

julia> findfirst(iseven, A)
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findfirst(testf::Function, A)
    for (i, a) in pairs(A)
        testf(a) && return i
    end
    return nothing
end

# Needed for bootstrap, and allows defining only an optimized findnext method
findfirst(testf::Function, A::Union{AbstractArray, AbstractString}) =
    findnext(testf, A, first(keys(A)))

function findfirst(p::Union{Fix2{typeof(isequal),T},Fix2{typeof(==),T}}, r::StepRange{T,S}) where {T,S}
    first(r) <= p.x <= last(r) || return nothing
    d = convert(S, p.x - first(r))
    iszero(d % step(r)) || return nothing
    return d ÷ step(r) + 1
end

"""
    findprev(A, i)

Find the previous index before or including `i` of a `true` element of `A`,
or `nothing` if not found.

Indices are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [false, false, true, true]
4-element Array{Bool,1}:
 0
 0
 1
 1

julia> findprev(A, 3)
3

julia> findprev(A, 1) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> A = [false false; true true]
2×2 Array{Bool,2}:
 0  0
 1  1

julia> findprev(A, CartesianIndex(2, 1))
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findprev(A, start)
    i = start
    f = first(keys(A))
    i < f && return nothing
    while true
        A[i] && return i
        i == f && break
        # prevind(A, f) can throw/underflow
        i = prevind(A, i)
    end
    return nothing
end

"""
    findlast(A)

Return the index or key of the last `true` value in `A`.
Return `nothing` if there is no `true` value in `A`.

Indices or keys are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [true, false, true, false]
4-element Array{Bool,1}:
 1
 0
 1
 0

julia> findlast(A)
3

julia> A = falses(2,2);

julia> findlast(A) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> A = [true false; true false]
2×2 Array{Bool,2}:
 1  0
 1  0

julia> findlast(A)
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findlast(A)
    for (i, a) in Iterators.reverse(pairs(A))
        if a
            return i
        end
    end
    return nothing
end

# Needed for bootstrap, and allows defining only an optimized findprev method
findlast(A::Union{AbstractArray, AbstractString}) = findprev(A, last(keys(A)))

"""
    findprev(predicate::Function, A, i)

Find the previous index before or including `i` of an element of `A`
for which `predicate` returns `true`, or `nothing` if not found.

Indices are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [4, 6, 1, 2]
4-element Array{Int64,1}:
 4
 6
 1
 2

julia> findprev(isodd, A, 1) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> findprev(isodd, A, 3)
3

julia> A = [4 6; 1 2]
2×2 Array{Int64,2}:
 4  6
 1  2

julia> findprev(isodd, A, CartesianIndex(1, 2))
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findprev(testf::Function, A, start)
    i = start
    f = first(keys(A))
    i < f && return nothing
    while true
        testf(A[i]) && return i
        i == f && break
        # prevind(A, f) can throw/underflow
        i = prevind(A, i)
    end
    return nothing
end

"""
    findlast(predicate::Function, A)

Return the index or key of the last element of `A` for which `predicate` returns `true`.
Return `nothing` if there is no such element.

Indices or keys are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [1, 2, 3, 4]
4-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2
 3
 4

julia> findlast(isodd, A)
3

julia> findlast(x -> x > 5, A) # returns nothing, but not printed in the REPL

julia> A = [1 2; 3 4]
2×2 Array{Int64,2}:
 1  2
 3  4

julia> findlast(isodd, A)
CartesianIndex(2, 1)
```
"""
function findlast(testf::Function, A)
    for (i, a) in Iterators.reverse(pairs(A))
        testf(a) && return i
    end
    return nothing
end

# Needed for bootstrap, and allows defining only an optimized findprev method
findlast(testf::Function, A::Union{AbstractArray, AbstractString}) =
    findprev(testf, A, last(keys(A)))

"""
    findall(f::Function, A)

Return a vector `I` of the indices or keys of `A` where `f(A[I])` returns `true`.
If there are no such elements of `A`, return an empty array.

Indices or keys are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> x = [1, 3, 4]
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 3
 4

julia> findall(isodd, x)
2-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 2

julia> A = [1 2 0; 3 4 0]
2×3 Array{Int64,2}:
 1  2  0
 3  4  0
julia> findall(isodd, A)
2-element Array{CartesianIndex{2},1}:
 CartesianIndex(1, 1)
 CartesianIndex(2, 1)

julia> findall(!iszero, A)
4-element Array{CartesianIndex{2},1}:
 CartesianIndex(1, 1)
 CartesianIndex(2, 1)
 CartesianIndex(1, 2)
 CartesianIndex(2, 2)

julia> d = Dict(:A => 10, :B => -1, :C => 0)
Dict{Symbol,Int64} with 3 entries:
  :A => 10
  :B => -1
  :C => 0

julia> findall(x -> x >= 0, d)
2-element Array{Symbol,1}:
 :A
 :C

```
"""
findall(testf::Function, A) = collect(first(p) for p in pairs(A) if testf(last(p)))

"""
    findall(A)

Return a vector `I` of the `true` indices or keys of `A`.
If there are no such elements of `A`, return an empty array.
To search for other kinds of values, pass a predicate as the first argument.

Indices or keys are of the same type as those returned by [`keys(A)`](@ref)
and [`pairs(A)`](@ref).

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> A = [true, false, false, true]
4-element Array{Bool,1}:
 1
 0
 0
 1

julia> findall(A)
2-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 4

julia> A = [true false; false true]
2×2 Array{Bool,2}:
 1  0
 0  1

julia> findall(A)
2-element Array{CartesianIndex{2},1}:
 CartesianIndex(1, 1)
 CartesianIndex(2, 2)

julia> findall(falses(3))
0-element Array{Int64,1}
```
"""
function findall(A)
    collect(first(p) for p in pairs(A) if last(p))
end
# Allocating result upfront is faster (possible only when collection can be iterated twice)
function findall(A::AbstractArray{Bool})
    n = count(A)
    I = Vector{eltype(keys(A))}(undef, n)
    cnt = 1
    for (i,a) in pairs(A)
        if a
            I[cnt] = i
            cnt += 1
        end
    end
    I
end

findall(x::Bool) = x ? [1] : Vector{Int}()
findall(testf::Function, x::Number) = testf(x) ? [1] : Vector{Int}()
findall(p::Fix2{typeof(in)}, x::Number) = x in p.x ? [1] : Vector{Int}()

"""
    findmax(itr) -> (x, index)

Return the maximum element of the collection `itr` and its index. If there are multiple
maximal elements, then the first one will be returned.
If any data element is `NaN`, this element is returned.
The result is in line with `max`.

The collection must not be empty.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> findmax([8,0.1,-9,pi])
(8.0, 1)

julia> findmax([1,7,7,6])
(7, 2)

julia> findmax([1,7,7,NaN])
(NaN, 4)
```
"""
findmax(a) = _findmax(a, :)

function _findmax(a, ::Colon)
    p = pairs(a)
    y = iterate(p)
    if y === nothing
        throw(ArgumentError("collection must be non-empty"))
    end
    (mi, m), s = y
    i = mi
    while true
        y = iterate(p, s)
        y === nothing && break
        m != m && break
        (i, ai), s = y
        if ai != ai || isless(m, ai)
            m = ai
            mi = i
        end
    end
    return (m, mi)
end

"""
    findmin(itr) -> (x, index)

Return the minimum element of the collection `itr` and its index. If there are multiple
minimal elements, then the first one will be returned.
If any data element is `NaN`, this element is returned.
The result is in line with `min`.

The collection must not be empty.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> findmin([8,0.1,-9,pi])
(-9.0, 3)

julia> findmin([7,1,1,6])
(1, 2)

julia> findmin([7,1,1,NaN])
(NaN, 4)
```
"""
findmin(a) = _findmin(a, :)

function _findmin(a, ::Colon)
    p = pairs(a)
    y = iterate(p)
    if y === nothing
        throw(ArgumentError("collection must be non-empty"))
    end
    (mi, m), s = y
    i = mi
    while true
        y = iterate(p, s)
        y === nothing && break
        m != m && break
        (i, ai), s = y
        if ai != ai || isless(ai, m)
            m = ai
            mi = i
        end
    end
    return (m, mi)
end

"""
    argmax(itr) -> Integer

Return the index of the maximum element in a collection. If there are multiple maximal
elements, then the first one will be returned.

The collection must not be empty.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> argmax([8,0.1,-9,pi])
1

julia> argmax([1,7,7,6])
2

julia> argmax([1,7,7,NaN])
4
```
"""
argmax(a) = findmax(a)[2]

"""
    argmin(itr) -> Integer

Return the index of the minimum element in a collection. If there are multiple minimal
elements, then the first one will be returned.

The collection must not be empty.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> argmin([8,0.1,-9,pi])
3

julia> argmin([7,1,1,6])
2

julia> argmin([7,1,1,NaN])
4
```
"""
argmin(a) = findmin(a)[2]

# similar to Matlab's ismember
"""
    indexin(a, b)

Return an array containing the first index in `b` for
each value in `a` that is a member of `b`. The output
array contains `nothing` wherever `a` is not a member of `b`.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> a = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'a'];

julia> b = ['a', 'b', 'c'];

julia> indexin(a, b)
6-element Array{Union{Nothing, Int64},1}:
 1
 2
 3
 2
  nothing
 1

julia> indexin(b, a)
3-element Array{Union{Nothing, Int64},1}:
 1
 2
 3
```
"""
function indexin(a, b::AbstractArray)
    inds = keys(b)
    bdict = Dict{eltype(b),eltype(inds)}()
    for (val, ind) in zip(b, inds)
        get!(bdict, val, ind)
    end
    return Union{eltype(inds), Nothing}[
        get(bdict, i, nothing) for i in a
    ]
end

function _findin(a::Union{AbstractArray, Tuple}, b)
    ind  = Vector{eltype(keys(a))}()
    bset = Set(b)
    @inbounds for (i,ai) in pairs(a)
        ai in bset && push!(ind, i)
    end
    ind
end

# If two collections are already sorted, _findin can be computed with
# a single traversal of the two collections. This is much faster than
# using a hash table (although it has the same complexity).
function _sortedfindin(v::Union{AbstractArray, Tuple}, w)
    viter, witer = keys(v), eachindex(w)
    out  = eltype(viter)[]
    vy, wy = iterate(viter), iterate(witer)
    if vy === nothing || wy === nothing
        return out
    end
    viteri, i = vy
    witerj, j = wy
    @inbounds begin
        vi, wj = v[viteri], w[witerj]
        while true
            if isless(vi, wj)
                vy = iterate(viter, i)
                if vy === nothing
                    break
                end
                viteri, i = vy
                vi        = v[viteri]
            elseif isless(wj, vi)
                wy = iterate(witer, j)
                if wy === nothing
                    break
                end
                witerj, j = wy
                wj        = w[witerj]
            else
                push!(out, viteri)
                vy = iterate(viter, i)
                if vy === nothing
                    break
                end
                # We only increment the v iterator because v can have
                # repeated matches to a single value in w
                viteri, i = vy
                vi        = v[viteri]
            end
        end
    end
    return out
end

function findall(pred::Fix2{typeof(in),<:Union{Array{<:Real},Real}}, x::Array{<:Real})
    if issorted(x, Sort.Forward) && issorted(pred.x, Sort.Forward)
        return _sortedfindin(x, pred.x)
    else
        return _findin(x, pred.x)
    end
end
# issorted fails for some element types so the method above has to be restricted
# to element with isless/< defined.
findall(pred::Fix2{typeof(in)}, x::Union{AbstractArray, Tuple}) = _findin(x, pred.x)

# Copying subregions
function indcopy(sz::Dims, I::Vector)
    n = length(I)
    s = sz[n]
    for i = n+1:length(sz)
        s *= sz[i]
    end
    dst = eltype(I)[_findin(I[i], i < n ? (1:sz[i]) : (1:s)) for i = 1:n]
    src = eltype(I)[I[i][_findin(I[i], i < n ? (1:sz[i]) : (1:s))] for i = 1:n]
    dst, src
end

function indcopy(sz::Dims, I::Tuple{Vararg{RangeIndex}})
    n = length(I)
    s = sz[n]
    for i = n+1:length(sz)
        s *= sz[i]
    end
    dst::typeof(I) = ntuple(i-> _findin(I[i], i < n ? (1:sz[i]) : (1:s)), n)::typeof(I)
    src::typeof(I) = ntuple(i-> I[i][_findin(I[i], i < n ? (1:sz[i]) : (1:s))], n)::typeof(I)
    dst, src
end

## Filter ##

"""
    filter(f, a::AbstractArray)

Return a copy of `a`, removing elements for which `f` is `false`.
The function `f` is passed one argument.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> a = 1:10
1:10

julia> filter(isodd, a)
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 3
 5
 7
 9
```
"""
function filter(f, a::Array{T, N}) where {T, N}
    j = 1
    b = Vector{T}(undef, length(a))
    for ai in a
        @inbounds b[j] = ai
        j = ifelse(f(ai), j+1, j)
    end
    resize!(b, j-1)
    sizehint!(b, length(b))
    b
end

function filter(f, a::AbstractArray)
    (IndexStyle(a) != IndexLinear()) && return a[map(f, a)::AbstractArray{Bool}]

    j = 1
    idxs = Vector{Int}(undef, length(a))
    for idx in eachindex(a)
        @inbounds idxs[j] = idx
        ai = @inbounds a[idx]
        j = ifelse(f(ai), j+1, j)
    end
    resize!(idxs, j-1)
    res = a[idxs]
    empty!(idxs)
    sizehint!(idxs, 0)
    return res
end

"""
    filter!(f, a::AbstractVector)

Update `a`, removing elements for which `f` is `false`.
The function `f` is passed one argument.

# Examples
```jldoctest
julia> filter!(isodd, Vector(1:10))
5-element Array{Int64,1}:
 1
 3
 5
 7
 9
```
"""
function filter!(f, a::AbstractVector)
    j = firstindex(a)
    for ai in a
        @inbounds a[j] = ai
        j = ifelse(f(ai), nextind(a, j), j)
    end
    j > lastindex(a) && return a
    if a isa Vector
        resize!(a, j-1)
        sizehint!(a, j-1)
    else
        deleteat!(a, j:lastindex(a))
    end
    return a
end

# set-like operators for vectors
# These are moderately efficient, preserve order, and remove dupes.

_unique_filter!(pred, update!, state) = function (x)
    if pred(x, state)
        update!(state, x)
        true
    else
        false
    end
end

_grow_filter!(seen) = _unique_filter!(∉, push!, seen)
_shrink_filter!(keep) = _unique_filter!(∈, pop!, keep)

function _grow!(pred!, v::AbstractVector, itrs)
    filter!(pred!, v) # uniquify v
    for itr in itrs
        mapfilter(pred!, push!, itr, v)
    end
    return v
end

union!(v::AbstractVector{T}, itrs...) where {T} =
    _grow!(_grow_filter!(sizehint!(Set{T}(), length(v))), v, itrs)

symdiff!(v::AbstractVector{T}, itrs...) where {T} =
    _grow!(_shrink_filter!(symdiff!(Set{T}(), v, itrs...)), v, itrs)

function _shrink!(shrinker!, v::AbstractVector, itrs)
    seen = Set{eltype(v)}()
    filter!(_grow_filter!(seen), v)
    shrinker!(seen, itrs...)
    filter!(_in(seen), v)
end

intersect!(v::AbstractVector, itrs...) = _shrink!(intersect!, v, itrs)
setdiff!(  v::AbstractVector, itrs...) = _shrink!(setdiff!, v, itrs)

vectorfilter(f, v::AbstractVector) = filter(f, v) # TODO: do we want this special case?
vectorfilter(f, v) = [x for x in v if f(x)]

function _shrink(shrinker!, itr, itrs)
    keep = shrinker!(Set(itr), itrs...)
    vectorfilter(_shrink_filter!(keep), itr)
end

intersect(itr, itrs...) = _shrink(intersect!, itr, itrs)
setdiff(  itr, itrs...) = _shrink(setdiff!, itr, itrs)