Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Plastid biotechnology for crop production: present status and future perspectives

  • Published:
Plant Molecular Biology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

    We’re sorry, something doesn't seem to be working properly.

    Please try refreshing the page. If that doesn't work, please contact support so we can address the problem.

An Erratum to this article was published on 27 July 2011

An Erratum to this article was published on 27 July 2011

Abstract

The world population is expected to reach an estimated 9.2 billion by 2050. Therefore, food production globally has to increase by 70% in order to feed the world, while total arable land, which has reached its maximal utilization, may even decrease. Moreover, climate change adds yet another challenge to global food security. In order to feed the world in 2050, biotechnological advances in modern agriculture are essential. Plant genetic engineering, which has created a new wave of global crop production after the first green revolution, will continue to play an important role in modern agriculture to meet these challenges. Plastid genetic engineering, with several unique advantages including transgene containment, has made significant progress in the last two decades in various biotechnology applications including development of crops with high levels of resistance to insects, bacterial, fungal and viral diseases, different types of herbicides, drought, salt and cold tolerance, cytoplasmic male sterility, metabolic engineering, phytoremediation of toxic metals and production of many vaccine antigens, biopharmaceuticals and biofuels. However, useful traits should be engineered via chloroplast genomes of several major crops. This review provides insight into the current state of the art of plastid engineering in relation to agricultural production, especially for engineering agronomic traits. Understanding the bottleneck of this technology and challenges for improvement of major crops in a changing climate are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Canada)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Apel W, Bock R (2009) Enhancement of carotenoid biosynthesis in transplastomic tomatoes by induced lycopene-to-provitamin A conversion. Plant Physiol 151:59–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Apel W, Schulze WX, Bock R (2010) Identification of protein stability determinants in chloroplasts. Plant J 63:636–650

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bock R (2007) Plastid biotechnology: prospects for herbicide and insect resistance, metabolic engineering and molecular farming. Curr Opin Biotechnol 18:100–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bock R, Khan MS (2004) Taming plastids for a green future. Trends Biotechnol 22:311–318

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bock R, Warzecha H (2010) Solar-powered factories for new vaccines and antibiotics. Trends Biotechnol 28(5):246–252

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng L, Li HP, Qu B, Huang T, Tu JX, Fu TD, Liao YC (2010) Chloroplast transformation of rapeseed (Brassica napus) by particle bombardment of cotyledons. Plant Cell Rep 29:371–381

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Corneille S, Lutz K, Svab Z, Maliga P (2001) Efficient elimination of selectable markergenes from the plastid genome by the CRE-lox site-specific recombination system. Plant J 72:171–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corriveau JL, Coleman AW (1988) Rapid screening method to detect potential biparental inheritance of plastid DNA and results for over 200 angiosperm species. Amer J Bot 75:1443–1458

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craig W, Lenzi P, Scotti N et al (2008) Transplastomic tobacco plants expressing a fatty acid desaturase gene exhibit altered fatty acid profiles and improved cold tolerance. Transgenic Res 17:769–782

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H (2002) Molecular strategies for gene containment in transgenic crops. Nat Biotechnol 20:581–586

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H (2007) Transgene containment by maternal inheritance: effective or elusive? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:6879–6880

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H, Datta R, Varma S, Gray S, Lee SB (1998) Containment of herbicide resistance through genetic engineering of the chloroplast genome. Nat Biotechnol 16:345–348

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H, Khan M, Allison L (2002) Milestones in chloroplast genetic engineering: an environmentally friendly era in biotechnology. Trends Plant Sci 7(2):84–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H, Kumar S, Dufourmantel N (2005) Breakthrough in chloroplast genetic engineering of agronomically important crops. Trends Biotechnol 23:238–245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H, Lee SB, Grevich J et al (2006) Complete chloroplast genome sequences of Solanum bulbocastanum, Solanum lycopersicum and comparative analyses with other Solanaceae genomes. Theor Appl Genet 112:1503–1518

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Daniell H, Singh ND, Mason H, Streatfield SJ (2009) Plant-made vaccines and biopharmaceuticals. Trends Plant Sci 14:669–679

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Cosa B, Moar W, Lee SB, Miller M, Daniell H (2001) Overexpression of the Bt cry2Aa2 operon in chloroplasts leads to formation of insecticidal crystals. Nat Biotechnol 19:71–74

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Marchis F, Wang YX, Stevanato P, Arcioni S, Bellucci M (2009) Genetic transformation of the sugar beet plastome. Transgenic Res 18:17–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeGray G, Rajasekaran K, Smith F, Sanford J, Daniell H (2001) Expression of an antimicrobial peptide via the chloroplast genome to control phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi. Plant Physiol 127:852–862

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Diekmann K, Hodkinson TR, Wolfe KH, Van Den Bekerom R, Dix PJ, Barth S (2009) Complete chloroplast genome sequence of a major allogamous forage species perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). DNA Res 16:165–176

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dufourmantel N, Pelissier B, Garcon F, Peltier G, Ferullo JM, Tissot G (2004) Generation of fertile transplastomic soybean. Plant Mol Biol 55:479–489

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dufourmantel N, Tissot G, Goutorbe F et al (2006) Generation and analysis of soybean plastid transformants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab protoxin. Plant Mol Biol 58:659–668

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dufourmantel N, Dubald M, Matringe M, Canard H, Garcon F, Job C, Kay E, Wisniewski JP, Ferullo JM, Pelissier B, Sailland A, Tissot G (2007) Generation and characterization of soybean and marker-free tobacco plastid transformants over-expressing a bacterial 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase which provides strong herbicide tolerance. Plant Biotechnol J 5:118–133

    Google Scholar 

  • Filipecki M, Malepszy S (2006) Unintended consequences of plant transformation: a molecular insight. J Appl Genet 47:277–286

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grevich JJ, Daniell H (2005) Chloroplast genetic engineering: recent advances and future perspectives. Crit Rev Plant Sci 24:83–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagemann R (2010) The foundation of extranuclear inheritance: plastid and mitochondrial genetics. Mol Genet Genomics 283:199–209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harris SA, Ingram R (1991) Chloroplast DNA and biosystematics: the effects of intraspecific diversity and plastid transmission. Taxon 40:393–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu Y, Zhang Q, Rao G, Sodmergen (2008) Occurrence of plastids in the sperm cells of Caprifoliaceae: biparental plastid inheritance in Angiosperms is unilaterally derived from maternal inheritance. Plant Cell Physiol 49:958–968

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hussein SH, Ruiz ON, Terry N, Daniell H (2007) Phytoremediation of mercury and organomercurials in chloroplast transgenic plants: enhanced root uptake, translocation to shoots and volatilization. Environm Sci Technol 41:8439–8446

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iamtham S, Day A (2000) Removal of antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic tobacco plastids. Nat Biotechnol 18:1172–1176

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • James C (2009) Global status of commercialized biotech/GM Crops: 2009. ISAAA Brief No. 41. ISAAA, NY

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansen RK, Raubeson LA, Boore JL et al (2005) Methods for obtaining and analyzing chloroplast genome sequences. Meth Enzym 395:348–384

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jin S, Kanagaraj A, Verma D, Lange T, Daniell H (2011) Release of hormones from conjugates: chloroplast expression of B-glucosidase results in elevated phytohormone levels with significant increase in biomass and protection from aphids and whiteflies conferred by sucrose esters. Plant Physiol 155:222–235

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kahlau S, Bock R (2008) Plastid transcriptomics and translatomics of tomato fruit development and chloroplast-to-chromoplast differentiation: chromoplast gene expression largely serves the production of a single protein. Plant Cell 20:856–874. doi:10.1105/tpc.107.055202

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kanamoto H, Yamashita A, Asao H, Okumura S, Takase H, Hattori M, Yokota A, Tomizawa K (2006) Efficient and stable transformation of Lactuca sativa L. cv. Cisco (lettuce) plastids. Transgenic Res 15:205–217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kota M, Daniell H, Varma S, Garczynski SF, Gould F, Moar WJ (1999) Overexpression of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry2Aa2 protein in chloroplasts confers resistance to plants against susceptible and Bt-resistant insects. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:1840–1845

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krichevsky A, Meyers B, Vainstein A, Maliga P, Citovsky V (2010) Autoluminescent plants. PLoS One 5:215461

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar S, Dhingra A, Daniell H (2004a) Plastid expressed betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase gene in carrot cultured cells, roots and leaves confers enhanced salt tolerance. Plant Physiol 136:2843–2854

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar S, Dhingra A, Daniell H (2004b) Stable transformation of the cotton plastid genome and maternal inheritance of transgenes. Plant Mol Biol 56:203–216

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langbecker C, Ye GN, Broyles DL, Duggan LL, Xu CW, Hajdukiewicz PTJ, Armstrong CL, Staub JM (2004) High-frequency transformation of undeveloped plastids in tobacco suspension cells. Plant Physiol 135:39–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SB, Kwon HB, Kwon SJ, Park SC, Jeong MJ, Han SE, Byun MO, Daniell H (2003) Accumulation of trehalose within transgenic chloroplasts confers drought tolerance. Mol Breed 11:1–13

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SM, Kang KS, Chung H, Yoo SH, Xu XM, Lee SB, Cheong JJ, Daniell H, Kim M (2006) Plastid transformation in the monocotyledonous cereal crop, rice (Oryza sativa) and transmission of transgenes to their progeny. Mol Cells 21:401–410

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SB, Li B, Jin S, Daniell H (2011) Expression and characterization of antimicrobial peptides Retrocyclin-101 and Protegrin-1 in chloroplasts to control viral and bacterial infections. Plant Biotechnol J 9:100–115

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leelavathi S, Reddy VS (2003) Chloroplast expression of His-tagged GUS-fusions: a general strategy to overproduce and purify foreign proteins using transplastomic plants as bioreactors. Mol Breed 11:49–58

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lelivelt CLC, McCabe MS, Newell CA, deSnoo CB, van Dun KMP, Birch-Machin I, Gray JC, Mills KHG, Nugent JM (2005) Stable plastid transformation in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Plant Mol Biol 58:763–774

    Google Scholar 

  • Li W, Ruf S, Bock R (2010) Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase as selectable marker for plastid transformation. Plant Mol Biol. doi:10.1007/s11103-010-9678-4

  • Liu CW, Lin CC, Chen JJW, Tseng MJ (2007) Stable chloroplast transformation in cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L.) by particle bombardment. Plant Cell Rep 26:1733–1744

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lössl A, Bohmert K, Harloff H, Eibl C, Mühlbauer S, Koop HU (2005) Inducible trans-activation of plastid transgenes: expression of the Reutropha phb Operon in Transplastomic Tobacco. Plant Cell Physiol 46(9):1462–1471

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz KA, Maliga P (2007) Construction of marker-free transplastomic plants. Curr Opin Biotechnol 18:107–114

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz KA, Knapp JE, Maliga P (2001) Expression of bar in the plastid genome confers herbicide resistance. Plant Physiol 125:1585–1590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz KA, Svab Z, Maliga P (2006) Construction of marker-free transplastomic tobacco using the Cre-loxP site-specific recombination system. Nat Protoc 1:900–910

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maliga P (2004) Plastid transformation in higher plants. Ann Rev Plant Biol 55:289–313

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mann CC (1999) Crop scientists seek a new revolution. Science 283:310–314

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martino-Catt SJ, Sachs ES (2008) Editor’s choice series: the next generation of biotech crops. Plant Physiol 147:3–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McBride KE, Svab Z, Schaaf DJ, Hogan PS, Stalker DM, Maliga P (1995) Amplification of a chimeric Bacillus gene in chloroplasts leads to an extraordinary level of an insecticidal protein in tobacco. Bio-Technol 13:362–365

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mullet J (1993) Dynamic regulation of chloroplast transcription. Plant Physiol 103:309–313

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen TT, Nugent G, Cardi T, Dix PJ (2005) Generation of homoplasmic plastid transformants of a commercial cultivar of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). Plant Sci 168:1495–1500

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nugent GD, Coyne S, Nguyen TT, Kavanagh TA, Dix PJ (2006) Nuclear and plastid transformation of Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower) using PEG-mediated uptake of DNA into protoplasts. Plant Sci 170:135–142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oey M, Lohse M, Kreikemeyer B, Bock R (2009) Exhaustion of the chloroplast protein synthesis capacity by massive expression of a highly stable protein antibiotic. Plant J 57:436–445

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Okumura S, Sawada M, Park YW, Hayashi T, Shimamura M, Takase H, Tomizawa KI (2006) Transformation of poplar (Populus alba) plastids and expression of foreign proteins in tree chloroplasts. Transgenic Res 15:637–646

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oldenburg DJ, Bendich AJ (2004a) Changes in the structure of DNA molecules and the amount of DNA per plastid during chloroplast development in maize. J Mol Biol 344:1311–1330

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oldenburg DJ, Bendich AJ (2004b) Most chloroplast DNA of maize seedlings in linear molecules with defined ends and branched forms. J Mol Biol 335:953–970

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quesada-Vargas T, Ruiz ON, Daniell H (2005) Characterization of heterologous multigene operons in transgenic chloroplasts. Transcription, processing, and translation. Plant Physiol 138:1746–1762

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruf S, Hermann M, Berger IJ, Carrer H, Bock R (2001) Stable genetic transformation of tomato plastids and expression of a foreign protein in fruit. Nat Biotechnol 19:870–875

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruf S, Karcher D, Bock R (2007) Determining the transgene containment level provided by chloroplast transformation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:6998–7002

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruhlman T, Ahangari R, Devine A, Samsam M, Daniell H (2007) Expression of cholera toxin B-proinsulin fusion protein in lettuce and tobacco chloroplasts—oral administration protects against development of insulitis in non-obese diabetic mice. Plant Biotechnol J 5:495–510

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruhlman T, Verma D, Samson N, Daniell H (2010) The role of heterologous chloroplast sequence elements in transgene integration and expression. Plant Physiol 152:2088–2104

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz ON, Daniell H (2005) Engineering cytoplasmic male sterility via the chloroplast genome by expression of beta-ketothiolase. Plant Physiol 138:1232–1246

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz ON, Hussein HS, Terry N, Daniell H (2003) Phytoremediation of organomercurial compounds via chloroplast genetic engineering. Plant Physiol 132:1344–1352

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saski C, Lee SB, Daniell H, Wood TC, Tomkins J, Kim HG, Jansen RK (2005) Complete chloroplast genome sequence of Glycine max and comparative analyses with other legume genomes. Plant Mol Biol 59(2):309–322

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saski C, Lee SB, Fjellheim S, Guda C, Jansen RK, Luo H, Tomkins J, Rognli OA, Daniell H, Clarke JL (2007) Complete chloroplast genome sequences of Hordeum vulgare, Sorghum bicolor and Agrostis stolonifera, and comparative analyses with other grass genomes. Theor Appl Genet 115:571–590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sears BB (1980) Elimination of plastids during spermatogenesis and fertilization in the plant kingdom. Plasmid 4:233–255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharkey TD, Laporte M, Lu Y, Weise S, Weber APM (2004) Engineering plants for elevated CO2: a relationship between starch degradation and sugar sensing. Plant Biol 6:280–288

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sidorov VA, Kasten D, Pang SZ, Hajdukiewicz PTJ, Staub JM, Nehra NS (1999) Stable chloroplast transformation in potato: use of green fluorescent protein as a plastid marker. Plant J 19:209–216

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sikdar SR, Serino G, Chaudhuri S, Maliga P (1998) Plastid transformation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Cell Rep 18:20–24

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silhavy D, Maliga P (1998) Plastid promoter utilization in a rice embryogenic cell culture. Curr Genet 34:67–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh AK, Verma SS, Bansal KC (2010) Plastid transformation in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Transgenic Res 19:113–119

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sodmergen, Kawano S, Tano S, Kuroiwa T (1991) Degradation of chloroplast DNA in second leaves of rice (Oryza sativa) before leaf yellowing. Protoplasma 160:89–98

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svab Z, Maliga P (2007) Exceptional transmission of plastids and mitochondria from the transplastomic pollen parent and its impact on transgene containment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:7003–7008

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valkov V, Gargano D, Manna C, Formisano G, Dix PJ, Gray JC, Scotti N, Cardi T (2010) High efficiency plastid transformation in potato and regulation of transgene expression in leaves and tubers by alternative 5’ and 3’ regulatory sequences. Transgenic Res. doi:10.1007/s11248-010-9402-9

  • Verma D, Daniell H (2007) Chloroplast vector systems for biotechnology applications. Plant Physiol 145:1129–1143

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verma D, Samson NP, Koya V, Daniell H (2008) A protocol for expression of foreign genes in chloroplasts. Nat Protoc 3:739–758

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verma D, Kanagaraj A, Jin S, Singh ND, Kolattukudy PE, Daniell H (2010) Chloroplast-derived enzyme cocktails hydrolyse lignocellulosic biomass and release fermentable sugars. Plant Biotechnol J 8:332–350

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wurbs D, Ruf S, Bock R (2007) Contained metabolic engineering in tomatoes by expression of carotenoid biosynthesis genes from the plastid genome. Plant J 49:276–288

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ye GN, Hajdukiewicz PTJ, Broyles D, Rodriguez D, Xu CW, Nehra N, Staub JM (2001) Plastid-expressed 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase genes provide high level glyphosate tolerance in tobacco. Plant J 25:261–270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Q, Liu Y, Sodmergen (2003) Examination of the cytoplasmic DNA in male reproductive cells to determine the potential for cytoplasmic inheritance in 295 angiosperm species. Plant Cell Physiol 44:941–951

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng Q, Oldenburg DJ, Bendich AJ (2011) Independent effects of leaf growth and light on the development of the plastid and its DNA content in Zea species. J Exp Bot. doi:10.1093/jxb/erq441

  • Zhou F, Badillo-Corona JA, Karcher D, Gonzalez-Rabade N, Piepenburg K, Borchers AMI, Maloney AP, Kavanagh TA, Gray JC, Bock R (2008) High-level expression of human immunodeficiency virus antigens from the tobacco and tomato plastid genomes. Plant Biotechnol J 6:897–913

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zubko M, Zubko E, Zuilen K, Meyer P, Day A (2004) Stable transformation of petunia plastids. Transgenic Res 13:523–530

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank the Research Council of Norway for grant BILAT-174998/D15 and Bioforsk core funding to Jihong Liu Clarke and USDA-CSREES, USDA-NIFA and NIH 2 R01 GM 063879 to Henry Daniell. The authors thank Nicholas Clarke and Sonja Klemsdal for critical reading and Shuai Guo for his help with references.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Plant Health and Protection Division, Bioforsk- Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research, Hoegskoleveien 7, 1432, Aas, Norway

    Jihong Liu Clarke

  2. Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, 336 Biomolecular Science Building, Orlando, FL, 32816-2364, USA

    Henry Daniell

Authors
  1. Jihong Liu Clarke
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Henry Daniell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jihong Liu Clarke.

Additional information

An erratum to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11103-011-9809-6

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Clarke, J.L., Daniell, H. Plastid biotechnology for crop production: present status and future perspectives. Plant Mol Biol 76, 211–220 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-011-9767-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-011-9767-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation