Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and the Kidneys: An Evolving Picture

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Identification of Biomarkers, New Treatments, and Vaccines for COVID-19

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((PMISB,volume 1327))

Abstract

Since December 2019, a novel coronavirus known as Severe Acute Respiratory Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused an outbreak of a respiratory illness worldwide. Even though SARS-CoV-2 primarily affects the respiratory system, other organs such as the heart and kidneys are implicated. The pathophysiology of Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) in coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) patients is not clearly defined. Direct kidney injury results from virus entry through angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptors which are highly expressed by the podocytes and proximal convoluted tubules, as suggested by “viral-like” particles on electron microscopy. However, the link between the presence of viral particles in kidney tissue and kidney injury has not been fully explained. Furthermore, it is also hypothesized that collapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), myoglobin toxicity, sepsis-linked, and glomeruli fibrin thrombi is part of the mechanism for AKI. Reported cases link FSGS and high-risk apolipoprotein 1 (APOL1) alleles in patients of African ancestry. Typically, these patients present with AKI and nephrotic-range proteinuria. The rate of AKI in hospitalized patients is high and associated with a higher mortality rate in older patients with comorbidities. Even higher mortality is now being reported in patients with chronic kidney disease and kidney transplant recipients due to immune system dysfunction. Herein, we review the current literature on kidney disease and pathogenesis in COVID-19 patients.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (Canada)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Wang D, Hu B, Hu C, Zhu F, Liu X, Zhang J et al (2020) Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 Novel Coronavirus-infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA 323(11):1061–1069. https://covid19.who.int/ accessed on 29th March 2021

  2. Gupta A, Madhavan MV, Sehgal K, Nair N, Mahajan S, Sehrawat TS et al (2020) Extrapulmonary manifestations of COVID-19. Nat Med 26(7):1017–1032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Godri Pollitt KJ, Peccia J, Ko AI, Kaminski N, Dela Cruz CS, Nebert DW et al (2020) COVID-19 vulnerability: the potential impact of genetic susceptibility and airborne transmission. Hum Genomics 14(1):17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40246-020-00267-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Guo Y-R, Cao Q-D, Hong Z-S, Tan Y-Y, Chen S-D, Jin H-J et al (2020) The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak – An update on the status. Mil Med Res 7(1):11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Epidemiology Working Group for NCIP Epidemic Response, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2020) The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 41(2):145–151

    Google Scholar 

  6. Zhang H, Penninger JM, Li Y, Zhong N, Slutsky AS (2020) Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a SARS-CoV-2 receptor: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic target. Intensive Care Med 46:586–590

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Zou X, Chen K, Zou J, Han P, Hao J, Han Z (2020) Single-cell RNA-seq data analysis on the receptor ACE2 expression reveals the potential risk of different human organs vulnerable to 2019-nCoV infection. Front Med 14(2):185–192

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Chang TS, Ding Y, Freund MK, Johnson R, Schwarz T, Yabu JM et al (2020) Prior diagnoses and medications as risk factors for COVID-19 in a Los Angeles Health System. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.03.20145581

  9. Weiss P, Murdoch DR (2020) Clinical course and mortality risk of severe COVID-19. Lancet 395(10229):1014–1015

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Kunutsor SK, Laukkanen JA (2020) Markers of liver injury and clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect 82:159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.05.045. S0163-4453(20)30325-X. Online ahead of print

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Kim L, Garg S, O’Halloran A, Whitaker M, Pham H, Anderson EJ et al (2020) Risk factors for intensive care unit admission and in-hospital mortality among hospitalized adults identified through the U.S. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)-associated hospitalization surveillance network (COVID-NET). Clin Infect Dis. ciaa1012. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1012. Online ahead of print

  12. Cariou B, Hadjadj S, Wargny M, Pichelin M, Al-Salameh A, Allix I et al (2020) Phenotypic characteristics and prognosis of inpatients with COVID-19 and diabetes: the CORONADO study. Diabetologia 63(8):1500–1515

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. He F, Luo Q, Lei M, Fan L, Shao X, Huang G et al (2020) Risk factors for severe cases of COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. Aging (Albany NY) 12(15):15730–15740

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Williamson EJ, Walker AJ, Bhaskaran K, Bacon S, Bates C, Morton CE et al (2020) Factors associated with COVID-19-related death using OpenSAFELY. Nature 584(7821):430–436

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Chan L, Chaudhary K, Saha A, Chauhan K, Vaid A, Zhao S et al (2020) AKI in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. J Am Soc Nephrol 32:151. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2020050615. ASN.2020050615. Online ahead of print

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Rubin S, Orieux A, Prevel R, Garric A, Bats M-L, Dabernat S et al (2020) Characterization of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Kidney J 13(3):354–361

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Corbett RW, Blakey S, Nitsch D, Loucaidou M, McLean A, Duncan N et al (2020) Epidemiology of COVID-19 in an Urban Dialysis Center. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(8):1815–1823

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Wang H (2020) Maintenance hemodialysis and COVID-19: saving lives with caution, care, and courage. Kidney Med 2(3):365–366

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Xiong F, Tang H, Liu L, Tu C, Tian JB, Lei CT et al (2020) Clinical characteristics of and medical interventions for COVID-19 in hemodialysis patients in Wuhan, China. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(7):1387–1397

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Jung HY, Lim JH, Kang SH, Kim SG, Lee YH, Lee J et al (2020) Outcomes of COVID-19 among patients on in-center hemodialysis: an experience from the epicenter in South Korea. J Clin Med 9(6):1688. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9061688

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Alberici F, Delbarba E, Manenti C, Econimo L, Valerio F, Pola A et al (2020) A report from the Brescia Renal COVID Task Force on the clinical characteristics and short-term outcome of hemodialysis patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Kidney Int 98(1):20–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Goicoechea M, Sánchez Cámara LA, Macías N, Muñoz de Morales A, Rojas ÁG, Bascuñana A et al (2020) COVID-19: clinical course and outcomes of 36 hemodialysis patients in Spain. Kidney Int 98(1):27–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. CDC (2020) People with underlying medical conditions, immunocompromised state (Weakened immune system) from solid organ transplant. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html#immunocompromised-state

  24. Akalin E, Azzi Y, Bartash R, Seethamraju H, Parides M, Hemmige V et al (2020) Covid-19 and kidney transplantation. N Engl J Med 382(25):2475–2477

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Elias M, Pievani D, Randoux C, Louis K, Denis B, Delion A et al (2020) COVID-19 infection in kidney transplant recipients: disease incidence and clinical outcomes. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(10):2413–2423

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Nair V, Jandovitz N, Hirsch JS, Nair G, Abate M, Bhaskaran M et al (2020) COVID-19 in kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 20(7):1819–1825

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Alberici F, Delbarba E, Manenti C, Econimo L, Valerio F, Pola A et al (2020) A single center observational study of the clinical characteristics and short-term outcome of 20 kidney transplant patients admitted for SARS-CoV2 pneumonia. Kidney Int 97(6):1083–1088

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Banerjee D, Popoola J, Shah S, Ster IC, Quan V, Phanish M (2020) COVID-19 infection in kidney transplant recipients. Kidney Int 97(6):1076–1082

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Cravedi P, Suraj SM, Azzi Y, Haverly M, Farouk S, Pérez-Sáez MJ et al (2020) COVID-19 and kidney transplantation: results from the TANGO International Transplant Consortium. Am J Transplant 20:3140. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.16185. Online ahead of print

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Caillard S, Anglicheau D, Matignon M, Durrbach A, Greze C, Frimat L et al (2020) An initial report from the French SOT COVID Registry suggests high mortality due to Covid-19 in recipients of kidney transplants. Kidney Int 98:1549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2020.08.005. S0085-2538(20)30961-3. Online ahead of print

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Kunutsor SK, Laukkanen JA (2020) Renal complications in COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Med 52(7):345–353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Singh AK, Gillies CL, Singh R, Singh A, Chudasama Y, Coles B et al (2020) Prevalence of co-morbidities and their association with mortality in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab 22:1915. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.14124. Online ahead of print

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Oyelade T, Alqahtani J, Canciani G (2020) Prognosis of COVID-19 in patients with liver and kidney diseases: an early systematic review and meta-analysis. Trop Med Infect Dis 5(2):80. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5020080

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Cheng Y, Luo R, Wang K, Zhang M, Wang Z, Dong L et al (2020) Kidney disease is associated with in-hospital death of patients with COVID-19. Kidney Int 97(5):829–838

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Portolés J, Marques M, López-Sánchez P, de Valdenebro M, Muñez E, Serrano ML et al (2020) Chronic kidney disease and acute kidney injury in the COVID-19 Spanish outbreak. Nephrol Dial Transplant 35(8):1353–1361

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Kurts C, Panzer U, Anders HJ, Rees AJ (2013) The immune system and kidney disease: basic concepts and clinical implications. Nat Rev Immunol 13(10):738–753

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Cohen G, Hörl WH (2012) Immune dysfunction in uremia—An update. Toxins (Basel) 4(11):962–990

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Betjes MG (2013) Immune cell dysfunction and inflammation in end-stage renal disease. Nat Rev Nephrol 9(5):255–265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Chen TK, Tin A, Peralta CA, Appel LJ, Choi MJ, Lipkowitz MS et al (2017) APOL1 risk variants, incident proteinuria, and subsequent eGFR decline in blacks with hypertension-attributed CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 12(11):1771–1777

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Kasembeli AN, Duarte R, Ramsay M, Mosiane P, Dickens C, Dix-Peek T et al (2015) APOL1 risk variants are strongly associated with HIV-associated nephropathy in Black South Africans. J Am Soc Nephrol 26(11):2882–2289

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Lipkowitz MS, Freedman BI, Langefeld CD, Comeau ME, Bowden DW, Kao WHL et al (2013) Apolipoprotein L1 gene variants associate with hypertension-attributed nephropathy and the rate of kidney function decline in African Americans. Kidney Int 83(1):114–120

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Friedman DJ, Pollak MR (2016) Apolipoprotein L1 and kidney disease in African Americans. Trends Endocrinol Metab 27(4):204–215

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Friedman DJ, Kozlitina J, Genovese G, Jog P, Pollak MR (2011) Population-based risk assessment of APOL1 on renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 22(11):2098–2105

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Kudose S, Batal I, Santoriello D, Xu K, Barasch J, Peleg Y et al (2020) Kidney biopsy findings in patients with COVID-19. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(9):1959–1968

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Santoriello D, Khairallah P, Bomback AS, Xu K, Kudose S, Batal I et al (2020) Postmortem kidney pathology findings in patients with COVID-19. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(9):2158–2167

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Su H, Yang M, Wan C, Yi L-X, Tang F, Zhu H-Y et al (2020) Renal histopathological analysis of 26 postmortem findings of patients with COVID-19 in China. Kidney Int 98(1):219–227

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Golmai P, Larsen CP, DeVita MV, Wahl SJ, Weins A, Rennke HG et al (2020) Histopathologic and ultrastructural findings in postmortem kidney biopsy material in 12 patients with AKI and COVID-19. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(9):1944–1947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Sharma P, Uppal NN, Wanchoo R, Shah HH, Yang Y, Parikh R et al (2020) COVID-19-associated kidney injury: a case series of kidney biopsy findings. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(9):1948–1958

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Wu H, Larsen CP, Hernadez-Arroyo CF, Mohamed MMB, Caza T, Chugtai A et al (2020) AKI and collapsing glomerulopathy associated with COVID-19 and APOL1 high-risk genotype. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(8):1688–1695

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Peleng Y, Kudose S, Agati VD’, Siddall E, Ahmad S, Nickolas T et al (2020) Acute kidney injury due to collapsing glomerulopathy following COVID-19 infection. Kidney Int Rep 5(6):940–945

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Larsen CP, Bourne TD, Wilson JD, Saqqa O, MA S (2020) Collapsing glomerulopathy in a patient with COVID-19. Kidney Int Rep 5(6):935–939

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Sharma Y, Nasr SH, Larsen CP, Amy K, Ormsby AH, Williamson SR et al (2020) COVID-19-associated collapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: a report of 2 cases. Kidney Med 2(4):493–497

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Gautier-Vargas G, Baldacini C, Benotmane I, Keller N, Perrin P, Moulin B et al (2020) Thrombotic microangiopathy in a patient with COVID-19. Kidney Int 98(2):509–512

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Yang X, Jin Y, Li R, Zhang Z, Sun R, Chen D (2020) Prevalence and impact of acute renal impairment on COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care 24(1):356. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03065-4

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Chen D, Li X, Song Q, Hu C, Su F, Dai J et al (2020) Assessment of hypokalemia and clinical characteristics in patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Wenzhou, China. JAMA Netw Open 3(6):e2011122. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.11122

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Hirsch JS, Ng JH, Ross DW, Sharma P, Shah HH, Barnett RL et al (2020) Acute kidney injury in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Kidney Int 98(1):209–218

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Fisher M, Neugarten J, Bellin E, Yunes M, Stahl L, Johns TS et al (2020) AKI in hospitalized patients with and without COVID-19: a comparison study. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(9):2145–2157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Mohamed MMB, Lukitsch I, Torres-Ortiz AE, Walker JB, Varghese V, Hernandez-Arroyo CF et al (2020) Acute kidney injury associated with Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Urban New Orleans. Kidney360 1(7):614–622

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Gabarre P, Dumas G, Dupont T, Darmon M, Azoulay E, Zafrani L (2020) Acute kidney injury in critically ill patients with COVID-19. Intensive Care Med 46(7):1339–1348

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Ng JH, Hirsch JS, Hazzan A, Wanchoo R, Shah HH, Malieckal DA et al (2020) Outcomes among patients hospitalized with COVID-19 and acute kidney injury. Am J Kidney Dis 77:204. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2020.09.002. S0272-6386(20)30998-7. Online ahead of print

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Cheng Y, Luo R, Wang X, Wang K, Zhang N, Zhang M et al (2020) The incidence, risk factors, and prognosis of acute kidney injury in adult patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 15(10):1394–1402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Russo E, Esposito P, Taramasso L, Magnasco L, Saio M, Briano F et al (2020) Kidney disease and all-cause mortality in patients with COVID-19 hospitalized in Genoa, Northern Italy. J Nephrol 34:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40620-020-00875-1. Online ahead of print

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Nimkar A, Naaraayan A, Hasan A, Pant S, Durdevic M, Suarez CN et al (2020) Incidence and risk factors for acute kidney injury and its effect on mortality in patients hospitalized from Covid-19. Mayo Clin Proc: Innov Qual Outcomes 4:687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2020.07.003. Online ahead of print

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Pelayo J, Lo KB, Bhargav R, Gul F, Peterson E, DeJoy Iii R et al (2020) Clinical characteristics and outcomes of community- and hospital-acquired acute kidney injury with COVID-19 in a US inner city hospital system. Cardioren Med 10(4):223–231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Cui X, Yu X, Wu X, Huang L, Tian Y, Huang X et al (2020) Acute kidney injury in patients with the Coronavirus Disease 2019: a multicenter study. Kidney Blood Press Res 5(4):612–622

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Pei G, Zhang Z, Peng J, Liu L, Zhang C, Yu C et al (2020) Renal involvement and early prognosis in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia. J Am Soc Nephrol 31(6):1157–1165

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Pan XW, Xu D, Zhang H, Zhou W, Wang LH, Cui XG (2020) Identification of a potential mechanism of acute kidney injury during the COVID-19 outbreak: a study based on single-cell transcriptome analysis. Intensive Care Med 46(6):1114–1116

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Ye M, Wysocki J, William J, Soler MJ, Cokic I, Batlle D (2006) Glomerular localization and expression of Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and Angiotensin-converting enzyme: implications for albuminuria in diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol 17(11):3067–3075

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Ling Y, Xu SB, Lin YX, Tian D, Zhu ZQ, Dai FH et al (2020) Persistence and clearance of viral RNA in 2019 novel coronavirus disease rehabilitation patients. Chin Med J 133(9):1039–1043

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Diao B, Wang C, Wang R, Feng Z, Tan Y, Wang H et al (2020) Human kidney is a target for Novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.04.20031120

  71. Ferreira AJ, Castro CH, Guatimosim S, Almeida PW, Gomes ER, Dias-Peixoto MF et al (2010) Attenuation of isoproterenol-induced cardiac fibrosis in transgenic rats harboring an angiotensin-(1-7)-producing fusion protein in the heart. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis 4(2):83–96

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Simões e Silva AC, Silveira KD, Ferreira AJ, Teixeira MM (2013) ACE2, angiotensin-(1-7) and Mas receptor axis in inflammation and fibrosis. Br J Pharmacol 169(3):477–492

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Crackower MA, Sarao R, Oudit GY, Yagil C, Kozieradzki I, Scanga SE et al (2002) Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is an essential regulator of heart function. Nature 417(6891):822–828

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Hamming I, Cooper ME, Haagmans BL, Hooper NM, Korstanje R, Osterhaus AD et al (2007) The emerging role of ACE2 in physiology and disease. J Pathol 212(1):1–11

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Ja X, Zhou X, Xu S et al (2020) Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med 180(7):934–943

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y et al (2020) Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 395(10223):497–506

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Mohamud AY, Griffith B, Rehman M, Miller D, Chebl A, Patel SC et al (2020) Intraluminal carotid artery thrombus in COVID-19: another danger of cytokine storm? Am J Neuroradiol 41(9):1677–1682

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Benzakoun J, Hmeydia G, Delabarde T, Hamza L, Meder JF, Ludes B et al (2020) Excess out-of-hospital deaths during the COVID-19 outbreak: evidence of pulmonary embolism as a main determinant. Eur J Heart Fail 22(6):1046–1047

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Wang J, Jiang M, Chen X, Montaner LJ (2020) Cytokine storm and leukocyte changes in mild versus severe SARS-CoV-2 infection: review of 3939 COVID-19 patients in China and emerging pathogenesis and therapy concepts. J Leukoc Biol 108(1):17–41

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Gao T, Hu M, Zhang X, Li H, Zhu L, Liu H et al (2020) Highly pathogenic coronavirus N protein aggravates lung injury by MASP-2-mediated complement over-activation. medRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.03.29.20041962

  81. Java A, Apicelli AJ, Liszewski MK, Coler-Reilly A, Atkinson JP, Kim AH et al (2020) The complement system in COVID-19: friend and foe? JCI Insight 5(15):e140711. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.140711

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Tang N, Bai H, Chen X, Gong J, Li D, Sun Z (2020) Anticoagulant treatment is associated with decreased mortality in severe coronavirus disease 2019 patients with coagulopathy. J Thromb Haemost 18(5):1094–1099

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Zhang Y, Xiao M, Zhang S, Xia P, Cao W, Jiang W et al (2020) Coagulopathy and antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 382(17):e38. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2007575

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Soler MJ, Wysocki J, Batlle D (2013) ACE2 alterations in kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 28(11):2687–2697

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Ackermann M, Verleden SE, Kuehnel M, Haverich A, Welte T, Laenger F et al (2020) Pulmonary vascular endothelialitis, thrombosis, and angiogenesis in Covid-19. N Engl J Med 383(2):120–128

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Hamming I, Timens W, Bulthuis ML, Lely AT, Navis G, van Goor H (2004) Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis. J Pathol 203(2):631–637

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Valente-Acosta B, Moreno-Sanchez F, Fueyo-Rodriguez O, Palomar-Lever A (2020) Rhabdomyolysis as an initial presentation in a patient diagnosed with COVID-19. BML Case Rep 13(6):e236719. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2020-236719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Lippi G, South AM, Henry BM (2020) Electrolyte imbalances in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Ann Clin Biochem 57(3):262–265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Ravioli S, Niebuhr N, Ruchti C, Pluess E, Stoeckli T, Lindner G (2020) The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis in COVID-19 pneumonia: report of two cases. Clin Kidney J 13(3):461–462

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Werion A, Belkhir L, Perrot M, Schmit G, Aydin S, Chen Z et al (2020) SARS-CoV-2 causes a specific dysfunction of the kidney proximal tubule. Kidney Int 98(5):1296–1307

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. George JA, Brandenburg JT, Fabian J, Crowther NJ, Agongo G, Alberts M et al (2019) Kidney damage and associated risk factors in rural and urban sub-Saharan Africa (AWI-Gen): a cross-sectional population study. Lancet Glob Health 7(12):e1632–e1643

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Cerdá J, Mohan S, Garcia-Garcia G, Jha V, Samavedam S, Gowrishankar S et al (2017) Acute kidney injury recognition in low- and middle-income countries. Kidney Int Rep 2(4):530–543

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Services, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Jaya A. George & Siyabonga Khoza

  2. University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Jaya A. George & Siyabonga Khoza

Authors
  1. Jaya A. George
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Siyabonga Khoza
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jaya A. George .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Charlesworth House, Debden, Essex, UK

    Paul C. Guest

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

George, J.A., Khoza, S. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 Infection and the Kidneys: An Evolving Picture. In: Guest, P.C. (eds) Identification of Biomarkers, New Treatments, and Vaccines for COVID-19. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology(), vol 1327. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71697-4_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation