Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Paper
  • Published:

Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: effects on food intake and body weight

International Journal of Obesity volume 24, pages 794–800 (2000)Cite this article

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Beverages are contributing an increased proportion of energy to the diet. Because they elicit a weak compensatory dietary response, they may increase risk of positive energy balance.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to document the differential effects of matched liquid and solid carbohydrate loads on diet and body weight.

DESIGN: In a cross-over design, seven males and eight females consumed dietary carbohydrate loads of 1880 kJ/day as a liquid (soda) or solid (jelly beans) during two 4 week periods separated by a 4 week washout. Subjects were permitted to consume the loads however they chose. In addition to baseline measurements, diet records were obtained on random days throughout the study, body composition was measured weekly, physical activity was assessed before and after treatments and hunger was assessed during washout and midway through each treatment.

RESULTS: Free-feeding energy intake during the solid period was significantly lower than intake prior to this period. Dietary energy compensation was precise (118%). No decrease in free-feeding energy intake occurred during the liquid period. Total daily energy intake increased by an amount equal to the load resulting in dietary compensation of −17%. Consequently, body weight and BMI increased significantly only during the liquid period. Physical activity and hunger were unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that liquid carbohydrate promotes positive energy balance, whereas a comparable solid carbohydrate elicits precise dietary compensation. Increased consumption of energy-yielding fluids may promote positive energy balance.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kuezmarski RJ, Johnson CL . Overweight and obesity in the United States prevalence and trends, 1960–1994 Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1993 22: 39–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. US Department of Health and Human Services . Physical activity and health: a report of the surgeon general. US Department of Health and Human Services: Atlanta, GA 1996.

  3. Williamson DF, Madans J, Anda RF, Kleinman JC, Kahn HS, Byers T . Recreational physical activity and ten-year weight change in a US national cohort Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1993 17:: 279–286.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Coakley EH, Rimm EB, Colditz G, Kawachi I, Willitt W . Predictors of weight change in men: results from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998 22: 89–96.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Hill JO, Peters JC . Environmental contributions to the obesity epidemic Science 1998 280: 1371–1377.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Middleton S . Fat modified foods: part of a healthy lifestyle. Newsletter, The Procter & Gamble Co. 1998.

  7. McDowell MA, Briefel RR, Alaimo K, Bishof AM, Caughman CR, Carroll MD, Loria CM, Johnson CL . Energy and macronutrient intakes of person aged 2 months and over in the United States: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, Phase 1, 1999–1991. Advance data From Vital and Health Statistics no. 255. National Center for Health Statistics: Hyattsville, MD 1994.

  8. Blundell JF, MacDiarmid JI . Fat as a risk factor for overconsumption: satiation, satiety, and patterns of eating J Am Diet Assoc 1997 97: S63–S69.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. James WPT, McNeill G, Ralph A . Metabolism and nutritional adaptation to altered intakes of energy substrates Am J Clin Nutr 1990 51: 264–269.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Prentice AM, Poppitt SD . Importance of energy density and macronutrients in the regulation of energy intake Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996 20 (Suppl 2): S18–S23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Westerterp KR . Food quoteient, respiratory quotient, and energy balance Am J Clin Nutr 1993 57 (Suppl): 759S–765S.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Horton TJ, Drougas H, Brachey A, Reed GW, Peters JC, Hill JO . Fat and carbohydrate overfeeding in humans: different effects on energy storage Am J Clin Nutr 1995 62: 19–29.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Mattes RD . Dietary compensation by humans for supplemental energy provided as ethanol or carbohydrate in fluids Physiol Behav 1996 59: 179–187.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Beverage Digest Company . Fact Book 1998. Bedford Hill, NY 1998 pp 54–55.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Block G, Dresser CM, Hartman AM, Carroll MD . Nutrient sources in the American diet: quantitative data from the NHANES II survey Am J Epidemiol 1985 122 (1): 27–40.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Food and nutrient intake by individuals in the United States, 1 Day, 1989–91. Continuing survey of food intake by individuals, 1989–91. US Dept of Agriculture Research Service: Washington, DC, 1995, NFS Report 91–2.

  17. Sfiligoj E . Beverage market index 1998 Beverage World 1998 117: 52–60.

    Google Scholar 

  18. USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service. Agricultural Statistics 1997. US Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1994.

  19. DeCastro JM . The effects of the spontaneous ingestion of particular foods or beverages on the meal pattern and overall nutrient intake of humans Physiol Behav 1993 53: 1133–1144.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Sallis, JF, Haskell, WL, Wood, PD, Fortmann, SP, Rogers, T, Blair, SN, Paffenbarger, RS . Physical activity assessment methodology in the Five-City Project Am J Epidemiol 1985 121: 91–106.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Herman CP, Polivy J . Restrained eating. In: Stunkard AJ (ed.) Obesity. WB Saunders: Philadelphia, PA 1980 pp 208–225.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Stunkard AJ, Messick S . The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger J Psychomsom Res 1985 29: 71–83.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Gatenby SI, Aaron JI, Jack VA, Mela DJ . Extended use of foods modified in fat and sugar content: nutritional implications in a free-living female population Am J Clin Nutr 1997 65: 1867–1873.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Haber GG, Heaton KW, Murphy D, Burroughs IF . Depletion and disruption of dietary fiber effects on satiety, plasma-glucose, and serum-insulin Lancet 1977 2: 679–682.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Naim M, Kare MR, Merritt AM . Effects of oral stimulation on the cephalic phase of pancreatic exocrine secretion in dogs Physiol Behav 1978 20: 563–570.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Ohara I, Otsuka S, Yugari Y . The influence of carrier of gustatory stimulation on the cephalic phase of canine pancreatic secretion J Nutr 1979 109: 2098–2105.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Teff KL, Devine J, Engelman, K . Sweet taste: effect on cephalic phase insulin in men Physiol Behav 1995 57: 1089–1095.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Kraegen EW, Chisholm DI, McNamara E . Timing of insulin delivery with meals Horm Metab Res 1981 13: 365–367.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Calles-Escandon J, Robbins DC . Loss of early phase of insulin release in humans impairs glucose tolerance and blunts thermic effect of glucose Diabetes 1987 36: 1167–1172).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Teff KT, Engelman K . Oral sensory stimulation improves glucose tolerance in humans: effects on insulin, c-peptide, and glucagon Am J Physiol 1996 270: R1371–R1379.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Wisen O, Bjorvell H, Cantor P, Johansson C, Theodorsson E . Plasma concentrations of regulatory peptides in obesity following modified sham feed (MSF) and a liquid test meal Regulatory Peptides 1992 39: 43–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Hunt JN, Smith JL, Jiang CL . Effect of meal volume and energy density on the gastric emptying of carbohydrates Gastroenterology 1985 89: 1326–1330.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Kaplan JM, Spector AC, Grill HJ . Dynamics of gastric emptying during and after stomach fill Am J Physiol 1992 263: R813–R820.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Spiegel TA, Kaplan JM, Alavi A, Kim PSY, Tse KKM . Effects of soup preloads on gastric emptying and fullness ratings following an egg sandwich meal Physiol Behav 1994 56: 571–575.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Phillips RJ, Powley TL . Gastric volume rather than nutrient content inhibits food intake Am J Physiol 1996 40:: R766–R779.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Schwartz GI, Moran TH . Duodenal nutrient exposure elicits nutrient-specific gut motility and vagal afferent signals in rat Am J Physiol 1998 274: R1236–R1242.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Wooley OW, Wooley SC, Dunham RB . Can calories be perceived and do they affect hunger in obese and nonobese humans? J Comp Physiol Psychol 1972 80: 250–258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Bellisle F, McDevitt R, Prentice AM . Meal frequency and energy balance Br J Nutr 1997 77 (Suppl 1): S57–S70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Habas, EM, Macdonald IA . Metabolic and cardiovascular responses to liquid and solid test meals Br J Nutr 1998 79: 241–247.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Meyer J . Glucostatic mechanism of regulation of food intake New Engl J Med 1953 249: 13–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Campfleid LA, Smith FJ, Rosenbaum M, Geary N . Human hunger: is there a role for blood glucose dynamics Appetite 1992 18: 244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Stewart SL, Black RM, Wolever TMS, Anderson GH . The relationship between the glycemic response to breakfast cereals and subjective appetite and food intake Nutr Res 1997 17: 1249–1260.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by USDA HATCH project no. IND084054.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Foods and Nutrition, Purdue University, West Lafayette, 47907-1264, IN, USA

    DP DiMeglio & RD Mattes

Authors
  1. DP DiMeglio
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. RD Mattes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to RD Mattes.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

DiMeglio, D., Mattes, R. Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: effects on food intake and body weight. Int J Obes 24, 794–800 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801229

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801229

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links